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Chaabene, H, Negra, Y, Capranica, L, Bouguezzi, R, Hachana, Y, Rouahi, MA, and Mkaouer, B. Validity and reliability of a new test of planned agility in elite taekwondo athletes. J Strength Cond Res 32(9): 2542-2547, 2018-This study aimed to examine the validity, reliability, and sensitivity of a new test of planned agility in elite taekwondo athletes and to establish its relationship with sprint-time, jumping ability, and dynamic balance. Twenty-seven (20 males and 7 females) taekwondo athletes participated in this study. They performed taekwondo-specific agility test (TSAT) in 2 occasions (i.e., test-retest). In addition, they performed jumping ability (i.e., squat jump, countermovement jump, standing long jump, and 3-hop jump), sprint-time (5- and 20-m dash), and dynamic balance (i.e., Y-test) tests along with a planned agility test (i.e., T-test). To establish TSAT's construct validity, 2 subgroups were identified based on their international and national taekwondo results: top elite (9 males and 2 females) and elite (11 males and 2 females). Taekwondo-specific agility test showed high relative and absolute reliability as well as a good ability to detect small and meaningful performance change. Top-elite athletes showed greater (p < 0.001) TSAT performances (4.5 ± 0.4 seconds) compared with their elite (5.3 ± 0.4 seconds) counterparts. Receiving operating characteristic (ROC) analysis showed that TSAT was able to discriminate athletes of different competitive level as revealed by an area under the ROC curve of 0.94 (95% confidence interval: 0.76-0.99). Taekwondo-specific agility test demonstrated significant association with the T-test (r = 0.71; shared variance = 50%), which is considered as a gold-standard planned agility test. In addition, results showed moderate-to-large associations between TSAT and jumping ability, sprint-time, and dynamic balance tests. The TSAT might be considered as a valid and reliable test to evaluate specific agility of taekwondo athletes.

Cerasola, D, Cataldo, A, Bellafiore, M, Traina, M, Palma, A, Bianco, A, and Capranica, L. Race profiles of rowers during the 2014 Youth Olympic Games. J Strength Cond Res 32(7): 2055-2060, 2018-Among the different factors affecting the outcome of elite rowing competitions, pacing strategy plays a relevant role. The purpose of this study was to analyze the race profiles of youth athletes competing at the 2014 Youth Olympic Games over a distance of 1,000 m. According to the competition outcome of sculling and sweep events, 96 youth (17-18 years) rowers (48 male and 48 female) were divided into winner (W), not winner (NW), qualified (Q), and not-qualified (NQ) athletes. The time during the 1,000-m race distance was considered at 0-500 m (T1) and 500-1000 m (T2). The average speed of T1 and T2 were normalized in relation to the average speed of the whole race. In both sexes, W rowers showed higher (p > 0.05) T2 values (100.8 ± 0.9%) with respect to T1 (99.2 ± 0.9%) ones. Female athletes showed a higher (p ≤ 0.05) T1 with respect to T2 in NW, Q, and NQ, whereas male athletes exhibited a higher T1 (p ≤ 0.05) than T2 speed only in NQ. While to be admitted to the final phase of the competition, the rowers tended to favor a positive race strategy (88%); during the final phase, a difference (p = 0.43) emerged for outcome, with the majority of medalists (67%) adopting a negative race strategy. These results suggest that winners have applied a different race strategy compared with the other groups in consequence to a higher efficiency of anaerobic metabolism.

The purpose of the present study was to report the training of a master athlete in preparation to an ultra-marathon swimming event. For 32 weeks prior to a 78-km "solo" open water swim from Italy to Albania, a male long distance master (48 years) swimmer was monitored. Training volume was recorded as total time and distance while intensities were recorded according to international classifications utilizing the primary goal of the session method. Thereafter, time spent in the three training zones: Z1 (low intensity training), Z2 (threshold training) and Z3 (high intensity training) was calculated. Weekly swimming volume ranged from 15 to 70 km.week-1 and training frequency ranged from 3 to 6 days.week-1. Total weekly training dedicated to swimming ranged from 270 to 1140 min. Training intensity comprised Z1=64%. Z2=28%, and Z3=8%, respectively. During the three-week taper period, total swimming volume decreased by 43% while intensity remained unchanged. The athlete succeeded in being the first swimmer to accomplish the event. These findings provide useful information for coaches on training regimens of master ultra-marathon swimmers. Compared to the literature, time spent at a Z1 training intensity was lower in favor of that spent in Z2. It could be speculated that master ultra-marathon athletes might benefit from training intensities at or above LT to counterbalance the age-related physiological decrease.

Background: Although physical demands could differently occur during particular phases of the youth water polo game, at present, literature lacks of time-motion and heart rate data referred to specific tactical situation. Therefore, the present study aimed to analyze a youth water polo game, specifying heart rate, and swimming activity aspects in relation to game situations., Methods: Twenty-six youth male players (15.6±0.5 years old) voluntary played a friendly game, which was tactically analyzed (offensive and defensive Even and Counterattack situation, and Power-play, Inferiority and Game Breaks) using notational analysis procedures. Successively, the heart rate (aerobic, anaerobic) and time motion (horizontal, vertical, and duel swimming patterns, with and without ball possession, backstroke) analyses were applied only to six (3 for team) players because they performed at list half of the total game duration. The tactical scenarios were mainly characterized by offensive (33%) and defensive (33%) even possessions, and game breaks (23%)., Results: No effect emerged between situations in terms of heart rate distribution, because it principally resulted as aerobic (range: 58-97%). The swimming activity analysis mainly showed differences (P≤0.05) between offensive counterattack and power-play in terms of distance (1 min of game, single pattern), time duration (1 min of game), and speed (single pattern) related to the horizontal activity. Repeated high intensity activities were performed 3.0±2.8 (range: 1-7) during the game., Conclusions: The findings of the present study provide important information for the planning of youth water polo training, with specific reference to playing situations.

This study assessed the physiological and technical demands of no dribble game drill (NDGD) in comparison with a regular drill (RD). Twenty-three young basketball players performed RDs and NDGDs in a random order. All basketball rules were followed for RDs, whereas dribbling was not permitted for NDGDs. The independent variable was the drill condition, and the dependent variables were percentage of maximal heart rate (%HRmax), rate of perceived exertion (RPE), Edwards training load (TL), and the following technical actions (TAs): pass (total, correct, wrong, and percent of correct passes), shot (total, scored, missed, and percent of made shots), interception, steal, turnover, and rebound. Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were applied to assess differences between NDGD and RD conditions for each dependent variable, and the level of statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. Results showed higher values for %HRmax (p = 0.007), Edwards TL (p = 0.006), and RPE (p = 0.027) in NDGD compared with RD condition. Technical action analysis revealed higher values in NDGD than RD for total (p = 0.000), correct (p = 0.000), and wrong pass (p = 0.005), and interception (p = 0.001), whereas no significant differences were found for the other TAs. The main finding of this study was that NDGD condition elicited a greater physiological demand and a higher number of passes and interceptions than the RD one. Basketball coaches should consider the NDGD as a viable method to increase the physiological load of their training sessions and to teach passing skills in a game-based situation.

Purpose: To evaluate the pacing strategy, rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and mood during a 78.1-km solo ultraendurance open-water swim., Methods: Before and after the event, anthropometric parameters, cortisol, and the profile of mood state (POMS) of 1 male athlete (age 48 y, height 172 cm, body mass 68 kg, body fat 7.2%, athletic achievement: Italian record holder of the Channel Swim) were ascertained. Every 3 h during the event, average swimming speed (SS), stroke rate, stroke length (SL), and RPE were recorded., Results: The athlete completed the event in 23:44 h:min. Compared with the first 3 h of swimming, decreases in SS (-33%) and SL (-25%) were observed between 18 h and 21 h. Thereafter, the athlete increased SS (+41%) and SL (+17%) between 21 h and the end. RPE steadily increased from the beginning to the last 6 h of swimming. Cortisol showed a 23-fold increase. After the event, POMS showed a 500% increase in fatigue, 44% decrease in tension, and 77% decrease in vigor., Conclusion: For the first time ever an athlete crossed the Adriatic Sea. This case study shows that the athlete adopted a variable pacing strategy to complete 78 km. Despite the athlete perceiving his effort at maximum during the last 6 h, the observed increases in SS at the end of the event might substantiate his high potential motivation to accomplish this challenging and unique event.

The purpose of this study was to define the technical and tactical profiles of official youth taekwondo competitions played under the most recent rules of the International Taekwondo Federation. Tactical actions (i.e., attack, defense, and block), technical executions (from 1- to 4-point scores), kicking legs (i.e., front/rear and right/left), and overall technical effectiveness were investigated in relation to match outcome of semifinal and final competitions (n = 50) of youth (aged 13-14 years) black belt athletes during the Italian Taekwondo Cadet Championship. Differences (p < 0.001) were found among all action typologies (Attack: 50.9 ± 2.2%; Defense: 27.7 ± 1.5%; Block: 21.3 ± 1.6%), with winners showing fewer (p = 0.005) offensive actions and more (p = 0.001) defensive actions with respect to non-winners. Independently from match outcome, technical exchanges showed differences (p < 0.001) for technical executions. Winners resulted more efficient (p < 0.001) for both technical and tactical variables. In general, these findings showed that Cadets tend to adopt an offensive strategy. In considering that the adoption of the new electronic system requires athletes to execute correct technical actions to have a score assigned, coaches should emphasize the effectiveness of scoring techniques and help athletes to effectively improve their defense and counterattack capabilities.

This study aimed to analyze the time-motion structure of combat phases (fighting: F, nonfighting: NF, and stoppage time: ST) during semifinal and final matches (three 1.5-minute rounds, with 1-minute rest in between) of the 2010 Italian Taekwondo Cadet (age 13-14 years) Championship (adolescent boys, n = 40; adolescent girls, n = 28) in relation to gender (adolescent boys and girls) and grouped weight division (light, middle, and heavy) of athletes. Regardless of gender, grouped weight division, round, and tournament stage, differences (p < 0.001, effect size range: 1.92-3.02) emerged for frequency of occurrence of combat phases (F: 42.4 ± 0.5%; NF: 44.5 ± 0.7%; ST: 13.1 ± 0.9%) and their mean duration (F: 2.8 ± 1.0 seconds; NF: 6.5 ± 1.8 seconds; ST: 13.7 ± 5.0 seconds). A 1:2 F to NF ratio was found, whereas a 1:3 ratio emerged when F was considered in relation to the sum of NF and ST. During F phase, 5 ± 1 tactical movements and 4 ± 1 technical exchanges were performed, lasting 0.6 ± 0.1 seconds and 0.7 ± 0.1 seconds, respectively. These findings mirrored the intermittent nature of youth combat, characterized by a high occurrence of tactical movements and technical exchanges during F phase. The lack of differences for round and tournament stages indicates a limited tactical capability of young athletes in adopting specific match strategies, independently from gender and weight divisions of the athletes. To prepare young athletes to handle the technical-tactical demands of the match, coaches could include 7-9 circuit stations of specific taekwondo sequences of attack and counter attack techniques.

Sport is recognized as playing a relevant societal role to promote education, health, intercultural dialogue, and the individual development, regardless of an individual's gender, race, age, ability, religion, political affiliation, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic background. Yet, it was not until the 2012 Summer Olympic Games in London that every country's delegation included a female competitor. The gender gap in sport, although closing, remains, due to biological differences affecting performance, but it is also influenced by reduced opportunity and sociopolitical factors that influence full female participation across a range of sports around the world. Until the cultural environment is equitable, scientific discussion related to physiological differences using methods that examine progression in male and female world-record performances is limited. This commentary is intended to provide a forum to discuss issues underlying gender differences in sport performance from a global perspective and acknowledge the influence of cultural and sociopolitical factors that continue to ultimately affect female performance.

Purpose: To anticipate outstanding athletic outcomes, the selection process of elite athletes simultaneously considers psychophysiological and technical parameters. This study aimed to investigate whether selected and nonselected athletes for the Italian national taekwondo team could be discriminated by means of sport specific performances and psychophysiological responses to training., Participants: 5 established Italian national athletes and 20 elite Italian taekwondo black belt athletes (9 women, 16 men; age 23.0 ± 3.1 y; body mass 67.0 ± 12.1 kg)., Methods: To update the Italian national-team roster, the 20 elite athletes participated in a 1-wk selection camp (7 training sessions). Selected athletes (n = 10) joined established national athletes during the following 3-wk national training period (7 training sessions/wk). During the 1-wk selection camp, differences (P < .05) between selected and nonselected athletes in performances, heart-rate responses, blood lactate accumulation [La], subjective ratings of perceived exertion (session RPE), and mood were examined. During the 3-wk national training period, differences (P < .05) in mood between selected and established national athletes were investigated., Results: With respect to nonselected athletes, selected athletes responded better to training in terms of session RPE (P = .047) and [La] (P = .046). No difference in performance and mood between subgroups emerged. After the 3-wk national training period, differences (P = .035) emerged for confusion, with decreases in the established national athletes and increases for recently selected athletes., Conclusions: Session RPE and [La] seem to be more effective than psychological measures in discriminating between elite taekwondo athletes. Evaluation of mood could be effective in monitoring athletes' response to national training.

This study aimed to analyze the technical and tactical aspects of young athletes during official taekwondo competitions. Fifty-nine youth taekwondo athletes (43 boys and 16 girls; age range: 10-12 years; weight category range: <24 to >59 kg) with at least 2 years of taekwondo training consisting of three 90-minute training sessions for 3 d·wk⁻¹ participated in this study. Thirty-seven matches (three 1-minute rounds, with 1-minute rest in between) were analyzed to verify the differences (p ≤ 0.05) in offensive and defensive actions in relation to gender (male, female), match outcome (winners, nonwinners), kicking leg (front, rear), and round (first, second, third). No difference emerged for gender and match outcome. With respect to defensive actions (8.4 ± 12.0%), youth athletes engaged more frequently (p < 0.0001) in offensive actions (91.6 ± 12.0%), which showed a significant decrease (p < 0.016) from the first round (42.3 ± 21.8%) to the second (33.1 ± 14.8%) and third (24.5 ± 16.0%) ones. Kicks performed with the rear leg (94.4 ± 7.8%) occurred more frequently (p < 0.0001) than those performed with the front leg (5.6 ± 7.8%). In considering that a high level of coordination is required to perform front-leg kicks and defensive actions necessitate a high level of tactical skills, these findings might indicate a not-yet complete attainment of fundamental coordinative capabilities in 10- to 12-year-old athletes, independently of match outcome. To enhance coordination capabilities in youth athletes, coaches are recommended to structure their training including skill-ability and sport-ability drills.

This study aimed to compare specific technical and tactical indicators of the team and centre forward role of Euro League, and Italian Serie A1, Serie A2, and Serie B men's water polo club competitions. A notational analysis was performed on 21 water polo matches to evaluate the occurrence of technical and tactical team and centre forward indicators, highlighting differences among championships according to chi-square analyses. Differences emerged for Counterattack (P < 0.001) and Power-Play (P < 0.001) possessions, Even (P < 0.001; Euro League: 3 ± 1, Serie A1: 3 ± 2, Serie A2: 3 ± 2, Serie B: 6 ± 4) and Power-Play (P = 0.001) goals, and exclusions and penalties (P = 0.008) of the team during Even possessions. Relatively to the role analyses, effects emerged for perimeter players playing events (P = 0.049), as well as for centre forwards' goals (P = 0.007) and exclusions and penalties (P < 0.001; Euro League: 8 ± 1, Serie A1: 6 ± 2, Serie A2: 6 ± 2, Serie B: 3 ± 2) occurring at the end of Even possessions. Therefore, in Euro League, and Italian Serie A1 and Serie A2, teams perform a high occurrence of Power-Play possessions following up an exclusion, especially achieved by the centre forward during Even possessions, while, in Italian Serie B, goals were mostly scored during Even possessions, with a relevant contribution from the centre forward role.

Using a randomized crossover design, this study aimed to compare the heart rate (HR) responses and match analysis parameters (i.e., type of action; the number of players involved in an action; the number of passes performed in a collective action; precision of the shots; lost balls; ball interceptions; dribblings; and tackles) of official 5-a-side youth male soccer matches played over 2 pitch surface (i.e., clay vs. artificial turf) conditions. Twenty-two young male soccer players (age 8.3 ± 0.4 years) engaged in 2 consecutive 15-minute periods in each experimental condition. During the match, 53% of HR responses exceeded 85% of the individual HR(peak). No difference emerged between both pitch surfaces and match periods for HR and match analysis indicators. The two 15-minute periods resulted in being appropriate for 8-year-old players, in resembling the intensity of play and the intermittent nature of adult soccer. The similar HR responses and technical-tactical patterns observed on the 2 surfaces indicate that youth match play is not affected by differences in pitch surface. To support the development of individual and team skills of young soccer players, coaches are advised to prioritize game knowledge based on divergent thinking and experience, rather than traditional teaching based on instructions.

A prevailing theory (and practical application) is that elite performance requires early childhood skill development and training across various domains, including sport. Debate continues whether children specializing early (ie, training/competition in a single sport) have true advantage compared with those who sample various sports early and specialize in a single sport later (adolescence). Retrospective data and case studies suggest either model yields elite status depending upon the sport category (ie, situational: ball games, martial arts, fencing; quantitative: track and field, swimming, skiing; or qualitative: gymnastics, diving, figure skating). However, potential risks of early specialization include greater attrition and adverse physical/emotional health outcomes. With the advent of the IOC Youth Olympic Games, increased emphasis on global youth competition has unknown implications but also represents a potential platform for investigation. Modification of youth competition formats should be based upon multidisciplinary research on psychophysiological responses, and technical-tactical behaviors during competition. The assumption that a simple scaled-down approach of adult competitions facilitates the development of technical/tactical skills of youth athletes is not necessarily substantiated with field-based research. Relatively little evidence exists regarding the long-term effects of rigorous training and competitive schedules on children in specific sports. It is clear that more prospective studies are needed to understand the training dose that optimally develops adaptations in youth without inducing dropout, overtraining syndrome, and/or injury. Such an approach should be sport specific as well as gender based. Until such evidence exists, coaches and sport administrators will continue to rely upon their sport-specific dogma to influence programmatic development of our most vulnerable population.

This study aimed to verify whether coordination improves as a result of a preseason soccer training. During 5 experimental sessions (days 1, 6, 11, 15, and 19), 16 semiprofessional male soccer players (22.0 ± 3.6 years) were administered 3 specific soccer tests (speed dribbling, shooting a dead ball, and shooting from a pass) and an interlimb coordination test (total duration of a trial: 60 seconds), consisting of isodirectional and nonisodirectional synchronized (1:1 ratio) hand and foot flexions and extensions at an increasing velocity of execution (80, 120, and 180 b·min(-1)). Furthermore, subjective ratings were monitored to assess the recovery state (RestQ) of the players, their perceived exertion (rating of perceived exertion [RPE]) for the whole body, and the perceived muscle pain (rating of muscle pain [RMP]) for the lower limbs and the internal training load by means of the session-RPE method. The ratios between post and pretraining RPE and RMP increased only during the first 2 experimental sessions and decreased after the second week of the training camp (p = 0.001). The Rest-Q showed increases (p < 0.05) for general stress, conflict/pressure, social recovery, and being in shape dimensions. Conversely, decreases (p < 0.05) were observed for social stress, fatigue, physical complaints dimensions. Throughout the preseason, the players improved their speed dribbling (p = 0.03), Shooting from a Pass (p = 0.02), and interlimb coordination (p < 0.0001) performances. These coordination tests succeeded in discriminating coordination in soccer players and could integrate field test batteries during the whole soccer season, because they were easily and inexpensively administrable by coaches.

Purpose: The aim of the present study was to assess the effectiveness of perceived exertion (session-RPE) in quantifying internal training load in divers., Methods: Six elite divers, three males (age, 25.7 ± 6.1 y; stature, 1.71 ± 0.06 m; body mass, 66.7 ± 1.2 kg) and three females (age, 25.3 ± 0.6 y; stature, 1.63 ± 0.05 m; body mass, 58.3 ± 4.0 kg) were monitored during six training sessions within a week, which included 1 m and 3 m springboard dives. The Edwards summated heart rate zone method was used as a reference measure; the session-RPE rating was obtained using the CR-10 Borg scale modified by Foster and the 100 mm visual analog scale (VAS)., Results: Significant correlations were found between CR-10 and VAS session-RPE and the Edwards summated heart rate zone method for training sessions (r range: 0.71-0.96; R2 range: 0.50-0.92; P < 0.01) and for divers (r range: 0.67-0.96; R2 range: 0.44-0.92; P < 0.01)., Conclusions: These findings suggest that session-RPE can be useful for monitoring internal training load in divers.

Women's water polo is a relatively recent addition to the program of the Olympic Games, making its debut in 2000. Although technical and tactical aspects of men's water polo performance have been studied, there is a paucity of information on the women's competition. Thus, the present study aimed to analyze the technical and tactical aspects of 12 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) women's water polo matches in relation to 3 playing situations (Even, Counterattack, Power Play) and match outcome (winning and losing teams). The notational analysis included the following indicators: frequency of occurrence of the offensive actions, duration, players, passes, turnovers, exclusion and penalty achievement, goal, and origin and type of shot. Differences between winning and losing teams emerged for duration of actions (p = 0.024), number of players (p = 0.033), passes (p < 0.0001), exclusions and penalties achieved (p = 0.026), shots originating inside (p = 0.002) and outside (p = 0.002) the 5-m area, and occurrence of goals (p < 0.0001) during the Even situation; exclusions and penalties achieved (p = 0.029), shots following up fake (p = 0.049), and goals (p = 0.021) during the Counterattacks; and passes (p = 0.02), and goals (p = 0.003) during the Power-Play actions. In conclusion, winners showed a better ability to perform faster actions, with more effective passes leading to goals. Thus, women's water polo NCAA coaches and conditioners are encouraged to evaluate the studied technical and tactical parameters when analyzing game performances of their teams.

This study investigated physiological and performance aspects of 15 (4 women and 11 men) elite Taekwondo athletes (24.0 ± 5.7 years) during their National Championship. The load of the competition was evaluated by means of heart rate (HR) and blood lactate (La). Pre and postmatch countermovement jump (CMJ), and handgrip performances were compared (p < 0.05). The match imposed a high load (HR > 85% of individual HRmax = 92 ± 12%; La = 6.7 ± 2.5 mmol·L⁻¹) on athletes. After the match, better (p < 0.0001) CMJ (men: 43.9 ± 5.2 cm; women: 30.8 ± 2.3 cm) and worst (p = 0.006) handgrip performances (men: 459 ± 87 N; women: 337 ± 70 N) were found with respect to prematch ones (CMJ: men = 40.8 ± 4.9 cm, women = 28.2 ± 2.5 cm; handgrip: men = 486 ± 88 N, women: 337 ± 70 N). Results indicate that the intermittent activity of the Taekwondo competition elicits a high neuromuscular activation of the lower limbs. Instead, the decreases in grip strength could be because of the repeated concussions on the upper limbs used to protect from the opponent's kicks and punches directed toward the scoring area of the torso. Practically, these results urge coaches to structure training sessions that enable athletes to maintain their upper limb strength during their match.

Unlabelled: Agility is the player's capability to perform rapid whole-body movement with change of velocity or direction in response to a stimulus. The aims of this study were as follows: 1) to assess the reliability of a reactive visual stimuli agility field test (RVS-T); and 2) to evaluate differences in RVS-T and planned (PVS-T) agility performances between female soccer and futsal players., Material and Methods: Sixty-six female players belonging to Italian teams of regional level were recruited to the study. The experimental apparatus consisted of four lighted spherical visual stimuli connected to a computer able to randomly generate three different sequences. Differences between RVS-T and PVS-T performances were calculated to evaluate the decision-making time (DMT) of players., Results: The intraclass reliability coefficient for RVS-T was 0.80. Significant (P<0.05) differences emerged only for RVS-T (futsal, 17.3±0.5 s; soccer, 18.8±1.1 s) and DMT (futsal, 2.6±0.6 s; soccer, 4.1±1.2 s), whereas similar performances between groups resulted for PVS-T (futsal, 14.7±0.6 s; soccer, 14.6±0.6 s)., Conclusions: The RVS-T proved to be a reliable tool to evaluate agility in field conditions. Futsal players showed better RVS-T and DMT performances with respect to soccer counterparts, probably due to the higher velocity of actions and faster decision-making of their sport. The lack of difference in PVS-T performances confirms the importance to evaluate agility capabilities of players in both planned and reactive conditions.

This study aimed at comparing elite (i.e., Euro League and Italian "Serie A1") and sub-elite (Italian "Serie B") matches. A notational analysis was performed on 17 men's water polo matches during the 2005-2006 season to evaluate the following technical and tactical parameters of the offensive play: frequency of occurrence of the actions; mean clock-time duration; mean number of players involved and passes; frequency of occurrence of the turnovers; and frequency of occurrence of the number, outcome, position, and type of the shots. All the indicators were analyzed in relation to even (i.e., equal number of offensive and defensive players), counterattack (i.e., higher number of offensive players than that of the defense), and power play (i.e., a team defending for 20 seconds without a player because of an exclusion foul) situations. A multivariate approach (multivariate analysis of variance) was applied to the playing situations (even, counterattack, and power play) as dependent variables and competition levels (Final Four of Euro League Championship, Serie A1 Championship, and Serie B Championship) as between factor (p < 0.05). Significant differences among competition levels emerged in (a) the frequency of occurrence of counterattack and power play actions, (b) the duration of even situations, (c) the mean number of players directly involved during power play actions, (d) the mean number of the passes during even and power play actions, (e) the frequency of occurrence of the shots during counterattack and power play actions, (f) the frequency of occurrence of goals during even actions, (g) the frequency of occurrence of shots originating from different zones of the court, and (h) the type of shots performed. The present results showed that the competition level has a relevant impact on the occurrence of technical and tactical indicators especially in relation to even, counterattack, and power play situations. Thus, notational analysis proved to be a valuable tool for better coaching through the interpretation of technical and tactical aspects of water polo in relation to its competition level.

The aims of this study were to provide a profile of young water polo players and to compare technical and tactical aspects, movement patterns, and cardiac loads of youth water polo and Acquagoal codes. Ten young (age 12.3 years, s = 0.6) male water polo players underwent anthropometric (stature, body mass, body mass index, chest circumference, hand breadth, and length), strength, and [Vdot]O(2max) evaluations. Friendly youth water polo and Acquagoal matches were arranged to evaluate heart rates and swimming patterns (horizontal and vertical, with and without the ball) of players, and technical and tactical aspects of matches (number of actions, passes, player involved in an action, lost possessions, shots, goals, and the origin and types of shot). Independent of code, matches imposed a high cardiac load on players. Vertical swimming occurred more frequently (P < 0.05) in Acquagoal (71%) than youth water polo (45%). Technical and tactical measures also differed (P < 0.05), with players performing more passes and shots inside the penalty area and showing a higher goal-to-shot ratio during youth water polo than during Acquagoal. These results indicate that youth water polo better resembles the swimming patterns of adult water polo and facilitates the technical and tactical aspects of play better than Acquagoal.

The study aimed at verifying the effect of soccer refereeing on power performances, evaluated by means of countermovement (CMJ) and bounce (BJ) jumps. Ten soccer referees (age 23 +/- 3 years; V(.-)O2max 51.8 +/- 3.2 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1)) participated in this study. The physical load of refereeing was evaluated by means of subject's heart rate (HR), motor activities recorded during the match, and blood lactate measured at the end of the 2 halves. Analysis of variance and chi-square tested the differences between halves (p < 0.05). During the first half, the occurrence of subject's HR >85%HRmax was 62 +/- 31%, and it significantly (p < 0.05) decreased to 45 +/- 24% during the second half. Referees spent 41 +/- 5% running, 44 +/- 6% walking, and 15 +/- 5% inactivity, with no significant differences between halves. Blood lactate was significantly different only between warm-up (2.0 +/- 0.4 mM) and first half (4.7 +/- 2.9 mM). No significant difference emerged for CMJ and BJ after the 2 halves, demonstrating that young referees with acceptable fitness levels are able to maintain their all-out capabilities during the whole match.