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The debate between mentalism/cognitivism and behaviorism is analyzed, and it is concluded that behaviorism is the philosophy more closely associated with psychology as a behavioral science, the cognitive approach being more closely aligned with biological science. Specific objections to mentalistic interpretations of behavioral phenomena are detailed, and examples from clinical psychology are used to show the importance of behavioral approaches in applied domains. It is argued that the relation between behavior theory and clinical psychology is critical to the continued advancement of applied psychology. Behavior analysis is offered as a direct, applied extension of behavior theory as well as a highly practical and effective approach for understanding, explaining, and modifying the factors that contribute to and maintain maladaptive behaviors.

The respondent (classical) conditioning of male sexual arousal was investigated, employing penile plethysmography and 2 control procedures. Nine participants participated in three sessions, for three consecutive weeks. Each session consisted of fifteen stimulus periods and fifteen detumescence periods. Three participants participated in each of three different experimental conditioning procedures. Sexually explicit visual stimuli preselected by each participant were utilized as the unconditioned stimuli (US), and a neutral slide of a penny jarwas employed as the conditioned stimulus (CS). In the first procedure, short delay conditioning, the CS was presented for 15 seconds, followed immediately by the US for 30 seconds. The second procedure was a backward conditioning procedure. In the third procedure, a random control condition, the presentation of CS and US was determined randomly. Results indicated that participants showed systematic maximum increases in penile tumescence from baseline in the short delay conditioning procedure, but not in the other two control procedures. Implications of these results to behavior therapy strategies which are based upon the conditioning of human sexual arousal are examined and discussed.

Advances in areas of behavior analysis are discussed to show the relevance of experimental science to behavior therapy. It is concluded that there are many areas of mutual interest between experimental operant psychologists and behavior therapists that may serve to enhance the clinical efficacy and range of behavior problems addressed by behavior therapists. Specific examination is given to areas of experimental behavior analysis such as reinforcement, including schedules of reinforcement; the matching law; advanced issues in stimulus control; the interaction between operant and classical conditioning; behavioral momentum; rule-governed behavior; and stimulus equivalence. The argument that behavior therapists are not knowledgeable about behavior analysis is disputed, and it is concluded that behavior therapists are in a unique position to be the practice professionals best able to utilize the principles of learning and behavior analysis in the service of adaptive behavior change.

Stimulus equivalence is a behavioral approach to analyzing the "meaning" of stimulus sets and has an implication for clinical psychology. The formation of three-member (A --> B --> C) stimulus equivalence classes was used to investigate the effects of three different sets of sample and comparison stimuli on emergent behavior. The three stimulus sets were composed of Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)-related words, non-REBT emotionally charged words, and a third category of neutral words composed of flower labels. Sixty-two women and men participated in a modified matching-to-sample experiment. Using a mixed cross-over design, and controlling for serial order effects, participants received conditional training and emergent relationship training in the three stimulus set conditions. Results revealed a significant interaction between the formation of stimulus equivalence classes and stimulus meaning, indicating consistently biased responding in favor of reaching criterion responding more slowly for REBT-related and non-REBT emotionally charged words. Results were examined in the context of an analysis of the importance of stimulus meaning on behavior and the relation of stimulus meaning to behavioral and cognitive theories, with special appraisal given to the influence of fear-related discriminative stimuli on behavior.

Stimulus equivalence is a behavioral approach to the analysis of the “meaning” of stimulus sets. The formation of three-member (A→B→C) stimulus equivalence classes was used to investigate the effects of three different sets of sample and comparison stimuli on emergent behavior. The three stimulus sets were composed of sexually explicit words, sexually ambiguous words, and a third category of neutral words. Forty-one female and male subjects participated in a modified matching-to-sample experiment. Using a mixed crossover design, subjects received training and emergent relationship training in the three stimulus set conditions, controlling for serial order effects. Results revealed a significant interaction between the formation of stimulus equivalence classes and stimulus “meaning,” indicative of consistently biased responding in favor of reaching criterion responding more slowly for the sexually explicit words. Results were examined in the context of an analysis of the importance of stimulus “meaning” on behavior, and the relation of stimulus “meaning” to behavioral and cognitive theories, with special appraisal given to the influence of sexually related discriminative stimuli on behavior.

Behavior principles are naturally implicated in most of the behavior therapy techniques used in the treatment of sexual dysfunctions and sexual disorders. Hypotheses differ, however, in the extent to which behavior therapy procedures emphasize the classical conditioning of sexual arousal (e.g. penile responses) or the operant conditioning of deviant sexual behavior patterns, or other often ignored behavior principles such as habituation. The purpose of the present case study is to investigate the possibility that at least part of the clinical effects of a widely used behavior therapy technique for sexual deviations, covert sensitization, may directly involve habituation processes. Results of the assisted covert sensitization case study indicate that, while expected decrements in sexual arousal to sexually inappropriate stimuli were observed, decrements in sexual arousal and self-report were also observed for sexually appropriate stimuli which received no aversive consequences, only repeated stimulus presentation over time. It is argued that habituation processes need further empirical investigation as a potential behavioral mechanism in the beneficial clinical effects usually noted in covert sensitization procedures.

Behavioral momentum, which can be defined as the persistence of behavior under altered environmental contingencies, is derived from Newtonian physics and operant psychology, and has relevance to behavior therapy in terms of shaping strong behaviors and ensuring effective relapse prevention strategies. The present study investigated whether changing operant schedule contingencies affects how humans respond to different stimuli when reinforcement density is systematically manipulated. Fifteen subjects participated in a computer study, in which each of two keys in a baseline condition was associated with the same schedule of reinforcement, multiple variable interval schedules, the only difference being that one reinforcer was ten times larger than the other. After six sessions, the contingency schedule changed to either an extinction condition, a variable time schedule, or a changed variable interval schedule to assess how 'subjects' responses persisted when reinforcement contingencies were systematically changed. Results of this study were found to be consistent with the general predictions of behavioral momentum. Subjects not only biased responding in favor of the more densely reinforcing key, but when contingencies changed, subjects showed continued biased responding. Implications for behavioral momentum for behavior modification and behavior therapy are discussed, and it is concluded that behavioral momentum has significant implications for designing new and comprehensive behavior change programs.

The relationship between the 4 subscales (Checking, Cleaning, Doubting, Slowness) and total score of the Maudsley Obsessional-Compulsive Inventory (MOCI) and performance in a negative-priming task and a response-speed task in 102 undergraduates was examined. Only Cleaning subscale performance correlated with magnitude of negative priming. Performance on the Checking, Slowing, and Doubting subscales was not significantly related to the magnitude of negative priming. The not significant correlation between Checking score and negative priming magnitude supports the findings of Maki, O'Neill, and O'Neill (1994), who observed that compulsive checking (of, e.g., whether the stove is turned off) appeared to be unrelated to deficiencies in inhibitory control. The present results are not, however, consistent with the view that obsessive-compulsive characteristics (as measured by the MOCI) result in a disruption in and a reduction of inhibitory control (Enright & Beech, 1993).

Short-term and long-term habituation of sexual arousal was investigated in a crossover design. Nine subjects completed six sessions semiweekly for 3 consecutive weeks. Sessions were scheduled at least 2 days but not more than 4 days apart. Each session consisted of 15 stimulus periods and 15 detumescence periods. Sexually explicit audio stimuli were administered. There were two conditions in the crossover design, which allowed each participant to serve as his own control. During one half of the sessions subjects were exposed to 15 different scripts (varied condition); during the remaining sessions subjects were exposed to the same script 45 times (15 trials for each of three sessions, the constant condition). The constant stimulus condition was the experimental habituation condition, whereas the varied stimuli served as a control for physiological fatigue. Scripts were randomly assigned to stimulus conditions. Subjects showed systematic decreases in penile responding within the second and third constant stimulus conditions, but no systematic decreases were noted in any of the varied stimulus conditions. Subjects evidenced significant long-term decreases in physiological responding only in the constant stimulus condition as well as short-term decreases in subjective report of arousal. Long-term habituation of sexual arousal may be related to molar behaviors such as promiscuity and the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, and may be tied to sociobiological accounts of long-term sexual behavior patterns in human males.

Recent behavioral studies have addressed the persistence of behavior under altered environmental conditions using more sophisticated techniques of behavior analysis which have direct relevance for applied behavior analysis and therapy. In clinical populations, for example, behavioral programs are concerned with issues such as generalizability of behavior and relapse prevention (Epstein, 1992). Free-operant behavior can be analyzed not only in terms of its response rate but also in terms of its persistence under changed environmental constraints. The aggregation of these two response measures, rate and persistence, has been termed behavioral momentum (Nevin, Mandell, & Atak, 1983). This study assessed behavioral momentum in a human population in order to test predictions made from the behavioral model and potential clinical applications of behavioral momentum to behavior analysis and therapy. Eight undergraduates served as subjects for this study. Results were consistent with the predictions based on behavioral momentum. Denser reinforcement schedules, regardless of response contingency, produced greater resistance to the implementation of changed contingency schedules. Results of this study may have direct application to behavior analysis programs. If humans, in clinical contexts, show similar patterns of persistence in behavior under changed environmental settings, schedules could be implemented that provide both contingent and non-contingent reinforcement, thereby strengthening behavior to give it greater generalizability outside of the immediate situation.

Investigation was given to the effects of two different types of stimuli on the formation of three-member (A→B→C) stimulus equivalence classes. In Condition 1, snake-related stimuli were tested; and in Condition 2 flower-related stimuli were examined. Stimuli in the two sets were matched in terms of the number of letters in each stimulus, letter placement, and word frequency. Fifty-one female subjects participated in a stimulus equivalence modified matching-to-sample training format adapted from Fields, Adams, Verhave, and Newman (1990). Using a crossover design that controlled for serial order effects, subjects received conditional discrimination training and emergent relations testing with both stimulus sets. Results revealed significant interaction between the formation of stimulus equivalence classes and stimulus sets. Stimulus set consistent test performances were achieved more slowly for stimuli composed of fear-relevant stimuli.

It has been argued that clinical psychologists, including clinical behavior therapists, are not aware of or knowledge about advances being made in basic behavioral research (Marks, Behavioral Psychotherapy), 9, 137–154, 1981). The present paper addresses the arguments advanced by clinical and experimental psychologists that behavior therapy and cognitve–behavior therapy are moving away from their respective ties to the experimental operant laboratory. It is argued that there are many areas of mutual interest between basic behavioral and clinical research and application. Several major research programs of operant psychology are analyzed in order to demonstrate conclusively that advances in basic behavioral studies have relevance for application by clinical psychologists. Progress in the experimental fields of the quantitative law of effect (the matching law), operant/classical interactions, including behavioral momentum, modeling and verbal and rule-governed behavior are analyzed. Applications of these basic behavioral principles to clinical settings are also illustrated. It is concluded that the experimental analysis of behavior can add much to the continuing development of a scientifically-based clinical psychology, and that mutual interest research on both sub-disciplines of psychology will lead to a greater understanding of the causes and conditions of human behavior, as well as direct the ability of clinical psychologists to effect meaningful behavioral change.

We conducted an uncontrolled case study (ABA design) based upon the hypothesis that the behavior of a home-bound agoraphic is at least partially maintained by positive reinforcement in the home and that a disruption of access to home-based reinforcement would lead to an increased frequency of out-of-the-home behavior. Data concerning the types and amounts of behavior engaged in by the subject within the confines of her home and yard were gathered during a 30-day base line period. In addition, potential reinforcers in the home were identified by a survey schedule and by self-report of time allocation. During an 18-day intervention period the subject agreed only to engaged in certain reinforcing activities outside her home (e.g., only watching television at a neighbor's house). Postintervention results indicated that for the first time in over 7 years the subject began engaging in out-of-home activities, including walking to other parts of the street, visiting several neighbors' homes, and attending parties at neighbors' homes. Moreover, data suggested a positive trend in time spent outside the yard during both 2 and 18 month follow-up periods. However, significant restrictions in the range of mobility were still observed.

The system of ethics and values proposed by B. F. Skinner is one that has “naturalized” ethics and is therefore able to resolve conflicts by empirical means. Skinner has demonstrated that the naturalistic fallacy proposed by Moore (1903/1966) is a groundless theoretical argument, and that “good” can be adequately and effectively naturalized and placed within the realm of scientific scrutiny. Skinner’s naturalistic ethical system has effectively bridged the gap between what “is” and what “ought to be” in an ethical sense. On the level of individual conflicts, a science of behavior can tell us who is right by scientifically and rationally probing the best methods for achieving our purposes, and these purposes can best be operationalized as survivability. Critics of Skinner’s ethical system have claimed that they see no good reason to work for the good of the culture, undermining Skinner’s argument concerning the significance of the survivability of the species. Implications for Skinner’s naturalistic ethics are presented and analyzed. It is concluded that as our society and our world move closer and closer to extinction from individual desires rising above the good of society, immediate aversive consequences for these behaviors will begin to take place. A Skinnerian ethical analysis entails changing the contingencies of reinforcement to affect a majority of individuals, so that they may emit behaviors consistent with what is good for our culture and species as a whole.

The role of mathematical statements within the experimental analysis of behavior is examined. Several examples of quantitative statements are analyzed and discussed. The roles of mathematics in the context of functional description, a formalized language, the discovery of new relationships, and point predictions are examined. Mathematical statements outside the experimental analysis of behavior are also examined. It is argued that mathematical statements serve several significant functions within behavior analysis, including the reconstruction of large numbers of facts with a minimal amount of terms; the allowance for the precision of direct testing (including point predictions); the allowance for abstraction and generalization; and the ability to transform findings in order to discover new relationships.

Long-term habituation of male sexual arousal occurs when (a) short-term (intrasession) habituation occurs; (b) habituated arousal spontaneously recovers; (c) the magnitude of spontaneous remission decreases across habituation sessions; and (d) the number of trials to habituation decreases across sessions. Five undergraduate volunteers each had six sessions at one week intervals of 15 presentations of erotic audiotapes. For three weeks, the same audiotape was presented, and for each of the other three sessions a different audiotape was presented at every stimulus trial. As indicated by penile plethysmography and self-report, in the constant stimulus conditions the criteria for long-term habituation generally were met. By contrast, responses to variable stimuli remained consistently high. Theoretical and clinical implications of the habituation process are discussed.

Behavioral momentum, the persistence of behavior under altered environmental contingencies, is derived from Newtonian physics and operant psychology. It has relevance to behavior analysis in terms of shaping strong behaviors and ensuring effective relapse prevention strategies in behavior modification and therapy. The authors investigated whether changing the operant schedule contingencies affects the responses of older humans to different stimuli when reinforcement density is systematically manipulated. Fifteen older adults participated in a computer study in which each of 2 keys in a baseline condition was associated with the same schedule of reinforcement and multiple variable intervals; the only difference was that 1 reinforcer was 10 times larger than the other. After 6 sessions, the authors changed the contingency schedule to either an extinction condition, a variable-time schedule, or a different variable-interval schedule, to assess how participants' responses persisted when reinforcement contingencies were systematically changed. The results were consistent with the predictions of behavioral momentum. The participants not only biased their responses in favor of the more densely reinforcing key, but when contingencies changed, they showed significantly biased responses. Results supported the conclusion that healthy older adults allocate their behaviors in a manner very sensitive to training stimuli conditions; consistent with the basic principles of behavioral momentum, they show a degree of resistance to change in their behaviors when the behavioral contingencies are altered.

Blanchard et al. (2008) call for the addition of a paraphilic condition to the DSM-V termed hebephilia. Beyond the fact that there was no control group employed by Blanchard et al. in order to compare the obtained results against normative patterns of sexual arousal of men, there were multiple methodological issues that preclude a call for the establishment of hebephilia as a diagnostic entity in the DSM-V. I find no problem with the plethysmography methodology employed by Blanchard et al.; however, I would note that Blanchard et al. did not specify whether the procedure for eliciting self-report of the subjects described as ‘‘a great deal of exploration’’ preceded or followed the physiological measurements. It would have been more sound for this procedure to follow physiological measurement so as not to serve as a potential sensitizing factor which could confound the results. Further, the grouping algorithm employed concerns me. There appears to be a significant amount of variability among the defined groups. Why not instead analyze those who reported exclusive or near-exclusive ranges of sexual responding to target age ranges? If none or too few of the participants indicated primary sexual attraction to pubescent males/females in the 11–14 year range in an original sample close to 3000, this is telling in and of itself. Blanchard et al. take Fig. 1 to be evidence that ‘‘the classification algorithm worked.’’ My inspection of the data does not leave me with this conclusion. On a 5-point Likert-type scale measuring a subjective factor, inspection of Fig. 1 reveals a significant amount of variability that may not, in the end, appropriately identify the subgroupings as described in the text. I did not see any statistical analysis of the discriminability of the labels assigned other than gross percentage figures for maximum attractiveness. So the validity of the group memberships themselves is at issue here. The absence of 15–18 year old stimuli also was problematic. I would also like to have seen more multivariate testing performed before charging in to a number of dependent sample t-tests (family wise error rate?). What I find astounding is how Blanchard et al. strongly word their discussion that these results mean ‘‘that hebephilia exists and–– incidentally––that it is relatively common compared with other forms of erotic interest in children.’’ The data do not support the conclusions reached in this article, especially the inclusion of a significant change to the DSM-V. Again, the data do not support the conclusions reached in this article. There does not appear to be any homogeneity of groupings along the axes of sexual interest groups (alluded to above). If there are ‘‘hebephiles’’ among us, then this sexual interest/ arousal pattern appears to be a very heterogeneous one. If it is heterogeneous, how can it have diagnostic specificity as Blanchard et al. state it has in their conclusion? Look at Fig. 3. In the pedophile groups (especially Pedo 2), there was significant overlap between physiological arousal to both pre-pubescent and pubescent girls. As a matter of fact, in their Pedo 2 group, there was more arousal to pubescent girls than to pre-pubescent girls. And this relation does not seem to hold for homosexual males (even though Blanchard et al. state that the hetero/homo groups were remarkably similar). How is that a diagnostic indicator of pedophilia? Also, there was a statistical difference in their pedophiles between pubescent girls and adult women. Is this a group primarily composed of non-exclusive pedophiles? If so, does this have different implication from groupings that would contain exclusive pedophiles? There is no way to answer that question given the data in the study. If their pedophiles show discrepant findings J. J. Plaud (&) 44 Hickory Lane, Whitinsville, MA 01588-1356, USA e-mail: plaud@fdrheritage.org

This study examined interrelationships of psychosocial variables found in a psychological evaluation for erectile disorder in 75 male veterans with chronic medical illness. Patients whose partners participated in the evaluation were compared with those whose partners were not involved, and agreement on measures between patients and partners was examined. Finally, a principal components analysis was performed to assess the primary dimensions underlying the variance in mental health and sexual functioning variables. Five factors were identified, accounting for 65.5% of the variance. Results of these analyses are discussed in order to obtain an understanding of the interrelationship between behavioral, psychological, and interpersonal variables in the onset and course of sexual dysfunction.

Although most theories of human sexual behavior claim that much normal sexual behavior is learned, and theories of the etiology and modification of paraphilic and dysfunctional sexual behavior also claim that abnormal sexual behavior is learned and can be counterconditioned, there is no systematic review examining the relationship between conditioning and human sexual behavior. We review research addressing whether habituation, sensitization, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning processes are involved in human sexual behavior. We conclude that, due to the methodological problems of extant studies, the basis for asserting the existence of relationships between habituation, sensitization, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and sexual behavior is tenuous.

Experimental research conducted over the past 3 decades in relation to behavioral allocation and choice, collectively known as matching law research, is analyzed in this paper. The importance of the matching law for areas ranging from experimental to clinical psychology and psychiatry is discussed in relation to empirical findings that bear upon the validity and utility of the matching law for both the prediction and control of human behavior as well as for psychological and scientific inquiry in general.