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Rice is among the world’s most important and ancient domesticated crops. However, the spatial and temporal pattern of the early rice domestication process remains unclear due to the lack of systematic study of wild/domesticated rice remains and corresponding dates during the early Holocene. Here, we collected 248 samples from five typical Shangshan cultural sites in the lower Yangtze region where is the most likely origin place of rice for phytolith analysis. The results showed the following. (1) Rice bulliform phytoliths from the five sites all present domestication traits, suggesting that the rice domestication process had begun across the region by the early stage of the Holocene. (2) The relative domestication rates reflected by the rice bulliform phytoliths were different between sites, the sites with higher domestication rates were distributed closer to the mainstream river. (3) The rice domestication process revealed by bulliform phytoliths can be divided into three periods during the early Holocene: from 10 to 9 ka, rice domestication began and stayed at a low level under 35%; from 9 to 8.5 ka, rice domestication level increased to 50%; and from 8.5 to 8 ka, rice domestication level was in a fluctuating state. (4) By 9 ka BP, rice double-peaked phytoliths from glume cells are present in most of the studied sites, which imply the presence of crop dehusking processing. This study reconstructed the spatial and temporal patterns of rice domestication during the early Holocene, which will improve our knowledge of early crop domestication and enhance our understanding of changes in rice status.

Volcanic eruptions can have a significant influence on adjacent ecosystems; however, little is known about the long-term vegetation change related to eruptions. In this study, we examined phytolith records in paleosols at multiple sites in the southern Kyushu District, Japan, to assess the influence of the Kikai caldera eruption 7300 years ago on vegetation. Our results show the vegetational difference before and after the eruption in the study region. Specifically, in the area where the pyroclastic flows distributed more thickly, the original evergreen forest was replaced by Andropogoneae grasslands after the eruption, which has been dominating the landscape in this area for at least 900 years. By contrast, in areas only mildly affected by pyroclastic flows, despite the temporary replacement of forest by grassland, the forest developed and flourished within several hundreds of years of the eruption. This is because a large amount of pyroclastic flow would have devastated all of the vegetation, whereas smaller amounts would have left some untouched forest sites within refugia. Our findings suggest that the vegetation varied significantly depending on the amount of pyroclastic flow reaching the area, even within the pyroclastic flow distributed region.

The El Tigre archaeological site (39°46′49″ S; 62°22′32″ W) is located in the south of Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina, on an ancient delta of the Rio Colorado. Its sedimentary sequence shows periods of landscape stability and soil formation processes during the period ca. 1,000–400 years bp. The aim of this paper is to investigate the evolutionary history of the vegetation in order to understand palaeoenvironmental changes during the late Holocene. The study of microremains, mainly phytoliths, from the sedimentary sequence indicates that cold and dry conditions predominated at 2,700–2,200 cal bp, from deposition of non-pedogenetic, aggradational sediments in arid or semi-arid environments and/or sparse vegetation cover. Then the climate became much warmer at ca. 2,200–1,200 cal bp, with greater availability of moisture and the presence of xerophytic shrubs and halophytic grasslands, and also extra-regional trees and shrubs. The records indicate that for ca. 1,500–300 cal bp the climate conditions changed to temperate with periods of greater water availability and the presence of a saline steppe and a greater abundance of Monte-Caldenal scrub vegetation elements. This climatic trend is also in agreement with the soil formation processes defined in the archaeological site sequence. The upper layers of the El Tigre site show lower temperatures in the last 300 years, accompanied by variations in the availability of moisture, with alluvial processes characterized by the presence of saline grasslands with xerophytic shrubs and an increase in Asteraceae and Poaceae, continued by the recent top samples with ruderal communities and sandy grasslands.

In combination with published archaeobotanical data, a detailed paleodietary reconstruction is performed here on human teeth (n = 19) using starch grain and phytolith analysis of dental calculus as well as stable isotope ratio analysis of bulk dentinal collagen. The site studied is Xueshan which is a Late Bronze Age (2700–1700 BP) settlement in Yunnan Province, China. Isotopic results show that this population consumed a predominately C3 diet except for one individual that consumed a mixed C3/C4 diet. Starch grains and phytoliths embedded in the dental calculus indicate that a diverse array of plant resources, including C3 cereals (wheat, rice, barley, buckwheat, beans), C4 cereals (millets), and roots and tubers were directly consumed. Comparison of the results presented here with a review of published works on microfossil analysis of human dental calculus from China not only confirms the dietary diversity of Late Bronze Age Yunnan, but also sheds light on the complexity of human-plant food relationships in this region.

Here we present a continuous palaeoclimatic record of 5980 years (7230 cal BP–1250 cal BP) from Hetapatti, a Neolithic site situated on the western fringe of the Central Ganga Plain. The region was a center of reurbanisation following the decline of the Harappan civilisation and is considered a hub of economic, political and religious evolution since the sixth millennium BC. Hetapatti contains an uninterrupted sequence from Neolithic to Historic (Gupta) period. The study integrates two different approaches (phytoliths and carbon isotope analysis) to infer vegetational and climatic changes and to understand their relationship to the cultural sequence. Our results show a gradual transformation from a warm and humid climate into a warm and dry climate from the Neolithic to Historic (Gupta) period. We find an abrupt weakening of the ISM at ~2080 cal BP driving a warm and dry climate. The comparison of our data with other high resolution regional and global records led us to hypothesise a synchronicity in this warm and dry trend, coeval with the Roman warm period (RWP). The observed variation in vegetation and climate might have driven by the fluctuations in the Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM). Additionally, the phytolith analysis provides evidence of cereal crops including rice, wheat, barley, millets, etc. suggesting a crop affinity with the earlier Indus crop package. It is interesting to note that the site displays an uninterrupted cultural sequence from Neolithic to Historic times, with artefacts of each phase exhibiting technological and stylistic developments from the preceding culture. From this we infer that the well adapted socio-ecological strategies and availability of perennial rivers may have helped the ancient civilisation to absorb the stress relating to a varying climate.

Phytolith records from three proximal freshwater shell midden sites document plant exploitation and local palaeoecological changes during the early Holocene in present-day Nanning City, Guangxi Province, China. Radiocarbon dating of freshwater gastropod shells indicates the midden sites formed sequentially, with variable chronological overlaps: Baozitou at 12,000-11,130 cal BP, Shichuantou at 11,250-10,500 cal BP and Nabeizui at 11,060-9560 cal BP. Palaeoecological data are inferred to show variable trends of forest reduction or recovery during the formation of each midden, suggesting different intensities of site use and impacts upon the local environment. Significantly, palms (Arecaceae) became more frequent during the middle period of formation at each site, which is interpreted to represent resource intensification and selective exploitation of palms by the communities who created each midden.

Open science is an integral part of all scientific research, but the extent of open science practices in phytolith research is unknown. Phytolith analysis examines silica bodies that are initially formed within and between plant cells during the life of the plant but become deposited in sediments once the plant dies. The use of phytoliths in archaeobotanical and palaeoecological studies has been increasing in recent years resulting in an upsurge in publications. The aims of this article are to assess open science practices in phytolith research by reviewing data and metadata sharing, and open access, in a sample of journal articles containing primary phytolith data from 16 prominent archaeological and palaeoecological journals (341 articles). This study builds on similar studies conducted for zooarchaeology (Kansa et al. 2020) and macro-botanical remains (Lodwick 2019). This study shows that 53% of papers shared data in any format but only 4% of papers contained reusable data, 74% included some pictures of phytolith morphotypes for identification purposes, 69% had a fully described method, 47% used the International code for phytolith nomenclature (ICPN 1.0) and only 13% of articles were open access. Steps forward are then proposed, including planning for open projects, making more articles openly accessible and implementing the FAIR data principles, to use as a starting point for discussions in the wider phytolith and archaeological communities to develop guidelines for greater integration of open science practices.

The archaeological sites of Shunshanji and Hanjing are recorded as the earliest Neolithic sites in the middle Huai river valley, China, which were occupied between 8,500 and 7,500 cal bp, and provide crucial evidence of rice growing. However, the water availability and management of arable land systems for rice cultivation and the main stages of rice processing at the two sites have not been studied before. In this paper, phytolith analyses are discussed in 66 samples from the Shunshanji site and 32 samples from the Hanjing site, with three phases of occupation at each. The ratios of sensitive to fixed forms in the phytolith assemblages over three phases reveal that in Phase I these ratios are relatively low, and they become significantly higher in Phases II and III at both sites. These results suggest that rice was grown probably only using natural water supplies in the lowlands during Phase I, but changed to growing on highly controlled and regularly flooded and drained wetlands in Phase II at the two sites. In addition, seen from the distribution and concentrations of phytoliths from rice, weeds and their by-products, as well as the proportions of each, both double peaked glume cells (DPG) and rice cuneiform bulliform cells (RCB) were found together with some rice paddy weed phytoliths. The concentrations of DPG were much higher than those of RCB in most samples from the Shunshanji and Hanjing sites over the three phases. The findings imply that rice ears together with the stems and leaves were probably stored after the harvest, then threshed and de-husked simultaneously, and the straw and chaff by-products were discarded together at the sites between 8,500 and 7,500 cal bp. The study in this paper aims towards a better understanding of past human behaviour and social organization in rice growing communities during the middle Neolithic in eastern China.

Starch grain, phytolith, and macrobotanical evidence is expanding our understanding of the Lucayan transported landscape, plant food preparation, and cooking practices. Starch grain analyses reveal...

Mid-elevation Andean ecosystems have immense species richness and endemism. Taxonomic composition is known to change through time on the eastern slopes of the Andes as a result of climatic change and disturbance events, both natural and by human actions. Fossil phytoliths can capture local scale vegetation changes, especially among monocotyledonous plants. Phytolith production is high in grasses and palms, plant groups that are particularly sensitive to climatic changes and disturbance events in Andean ecosystems. Here, we reconstruct four centuries of local-scale vegetation change and the corresponding fire history from lake sediment records retrieved from Lagunas Cormorán and Chimerella, located at ca. 1,700 m a.s.l. in the mid-elevation Andean forests of eastern Ecuador. The charcoal analysis of the lake sediments showed no sign of past fires, and no evidence of cultivation was found at either lake. The phytolith assemblages indicated changes in the relative abundances of palms, grasses and trees over the last few centuries, suggesting that mid-elevation Andean phytolith assemblages are sensitive to local scale vegetation dynamics. The largest change in vegetation occurred at the end of the Little Ice Age, at which point the diversity of palm phytoliths decreases. These phytolith assemblages are probably responding to changes in the cloud base position through time, which strongly influences the distributions of many plants and animals.

In this paper we present the results of phytolith investigations at two archaeological sites in northwestern Morocco: Khil (Tangier) and Kaf Taht el-Ghar (Tétouan). The two sites located in Western Maghreb, one on the Atlantic and one on the Mediterranean coast, were investigated in the framework of the AGRIWESTMED project. Phytolith analysis complemented archaeobotanical, geoarchaeological and archaeological investigations to better identify plant use during the entire occupation sequence. At Khil 16 samples have been studied, coming from two profiles excavated in two different caves of the same system – grotte B and grotte C – that span a chronology comprised between the early Neolithic and the historic period. At Kaf Taht el-Ghar, 15 samples were analysed spanning from the Palaeolithic to the Historic period. Results show that at Khil plants are widely used from the very beginning of the Early Neolithic sequence. The surrounding vegetation was exploited and both C3 and C4 grasses were used, inside the cave. At the same time a wide array of other plants was utilised, such as palms and woody taxa. Phytolith analysis at the site of Kaf Taht el-Ghar indicates that crop processing was most probably not taking place on site. However, the predominance in the samples of C3 grasses morphologies agrees with the finding of previous macro botanical studies that identified cultivated wheat and barley in this cave deposits. A very interesting aspect of the phytolith assemblages of Kaf Taht el-Ghar is the widespread use of palm leaves and their gradual disappearance through time that coincides with an increase in the use of woody species., This research was conducted in the framework of the AGRIWESTMED project (ERC-2008-AdG Proposal No 230561). CL, SB and MM are part of the Culture and Socio-Ecological Dynamics Research Group (2017 SGR-212). The authors want to especially thank the National Institute for Archaeology and Heritage (INSAP) for granting the excavation permits. CL thanks Abel Ruiz-Giralt for help with graphics and R.

Identification of ecosystem turnover in the palaeo-vegetation record is important for understanding the resilience of ecosystems to past environmental change. There is uncertainty over the ability of different types of palaeo-vegetation proxies to detect ecosystem turnover. The aim of this paper is to compare the sensitivity of two palaeo-vegetation proxies – pollen and phytoliths – to changes within and between three key tropical South American ecosystems: evergreen forest, dry forest and savannah. A quantitative approach is used to assess the sensitivity of these two proxies to vegetation changes, based on the variability of proxy assemblages from 1-ha ecological plots in ecotonal south-west Amazonia. This modern dataset of proxy variability within evergreen forest, dry forest and savannah plots is then used to define thresholds for proxy variability which differentiate floristic changes within an ecosystem from ecosystem turnover. These thresholds are applied to two palaeo-vegetation records from NE Bolivia. Our results show that pollen is more sensitive than phytoliths to changes within evergreen forest, but phytoliths are more sensitive than pollen to changes within dry forest. Both proxies were equally sensitive to changes within the savannahs. These are important considerations for palaeoecologists selecting proxies for the study of ecosystem turnover in the palaeo-record. Application of the thresholds to the palaeo-record demonstrated the utility of this quantitative approach for assessing the magnitude of vegetation change in the palaeo-record. This quantitative approach is therefore a useful tool to improve the identification of ecosystem turnover in the palaeo-record.

Reference collections of phytoliths from plant taxa commonly used by the ancient inhabitants of an archaeological site are critical to researchers conducting analyses on these microbotanical remains. Phytoliths recovered from the site are compared to those in reference collections to make inferences about which taxa were being used, as well as where, why and how. This study presents one of the first reference collections of phytoliths from selected taxa likely to have been used by Native American peoples living in the Great Basin area. The results are presented as a list of taxa which we sampled, and that are known to have been used by these tribes, such as the Shoshone and Ute, with illustrations of the range of phytolith morphotypes produced by each taxon. Our hope is that this tool will prove to be a ready and valuable resource for any researchers conducting phytolith analysis at Great Basin Native American sites.

The archaeological site of Williamson’s Moss, located in north-west England, was excavated in the 1980s as part of an investigation of the Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Bronze Age populations living around the estuary of the River Esk in Cumbria. Recovery of plant remains was generally low, but bulk sediment samples were collected from different contexts as part of a project archive for future analysis. This paper presents the results of new analyses conducted on these archived samples, carried out to assess whether phytolith analysis could offer additional insights into the local environment and plant use at the site. Whilst the results indicate the presence of a diverse range of phytolith types from both monocotyledon and dicotyledon plants (along with sponge spicules, diatoms and microcharcoal), interpretation of the data is problematic. Comparison with existing palynological and excavation data indicate methodological limitations in using bulk archived samples. Nevertheless, the recovery of abundant microfossil material is encouraging for the emerging field of phytolith studies in temperate environments such as Britain, and suggestions are made regarding future sampling strategies and taphonomic considerations that will reduce problems for future analyses.

En este trabajo se analiza el estado del arte del conocimiento sobre los usos pasados y presentes de las gramíneas en el desierto de altura puneño. A partir de ello se establece la pertinencia de explorar la utilización de estas plantas mediante el estudio de microfósiles. Se presentan los primeros resultados obtenidos en relación a la caracterización fitolítica de inflorescencias e infrutescencias de especies silvestres de Poaceae de esta área y sobre esta base, se introduce una discusión sobre aspectos metodológicos y conceptuales que afectan la interpretación del registro de microindicadores modernos y fósiles, tales como continuo morfológico y conjuntos fitolíticos redundantes. The state of the art of knowledge about the past and present uses of grasses in the Punean high desert, is analyzed. Then, the relevance of exploring the use of these plants through the study of microfossils is established. The first results obtained on the phytolithic characterization of inflorescences and infrutescences of wild Poaceae species in this area are presented. On this basis, a discussion is introduced on some methodological and conceptual aspects that affect the interpretation of the modern and fossil micro indicators’ record, such as morphological continuum and redundant phytolith assemblages Fil: Musaubach, María Gabriela. Universidad Nacional de Tucuman. Instituto de Datacion y Arqueometria. - Universidad Nacional de Jujuy. Instituto de Datacion y Arqueometria. - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y Tecnicas. Centro Cientifico Tecnologico Conicet - Saltajujuy. Instituto de Datacion y Arqueometria.; Argentina Fil: Babot, Maria del Pilar. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Tucumán. Instituto Superior de Estudios Sociales. Universidad Nacional de Tucumán. Instituto Superior de Estudios Sociales; Argentina

This paper presents preliminary results of the analysis of phytolith evidence for Phoenix dactylifera (date palm) from Early Bronze Age occupation levels at Tell Fadous-Kfarabida on the north-central coast of modern Lebanon. Sediment samples were collected from a wide range of activity areas and contexts, but date palm only occurred in Early Bronze Age (EBIII) storage contexts, its earliest positive identification in the archaeological record of Lebanon. Tell Fadous-Kfarabida is a relatively small early urban settlement of only c. 1.5 ha, but evidence from 10 years of excavation suggests that it held a significant administrative role in the agrarian economy of the Lebanese coastal plain. Archaeobotanical research is still relatively uncommon in the archaeology of Lebanon, but is beginning to make major contributions to better understand ancient plant use practices in the region. This short report contributes significantly to our understanding of the early pathways for the spread and use of date palm in 3rd millennium bce Lebanon.

Phytoliths—also known as plant opals—are preserved in soils and sediments and have taxonomical relevance, therefore phytoliths can be fingerprints of the vegetation of the period from which they originated. Comparative phytolith studies are essential for finding phytolith morphotypes with taxonomic relevance. These are used to build reference collections for future palaeoecological and archaeobotanical studies. Biogenic silica extracted from the leaves of six woody species commonly occurring in temperate climate plant communities was examined using light and scanning electron microscope methods (Deciduous broad-leaved species: Corylus avellana, Fagus sylvatica, Quercus robur. Coniferous species: Abies alba, Picea abies, Pinus sylvestris). The element content of phytoliths was analysed by SEM EDX and the phytolith taxonomic diagnostic potential of element content was tested by discriminant analysis. An inventory of phytolith types with their anatomical origin was provided and type-frequencies were assessed. Three species have been systematically screened here for the first time in detail (C. avellana, F. sylvatica, Q. robur). This is the first time that a characteristic cubical phytolith morphotype (“Picea—blocky type”) originating from transfusion tissue was described as a distinct layer encompassing the central cylinder of the needle. High concentrations of aluminium and magnesium in phytoliths are associated with two of three conifer species. A. alba and P. sylvestris could be differentiated statistically on the basis of elemental content. Our findings open up the possibility to identify these taxa based on their phytoliths and it is anticipated that this could be a useful tool for phytolith identification originating from soils and sediments as well. Moreover, Picea—blocky type allows comparative, in situ studies (amongst others isotopic) to provide the possibility of finding further measurable proxies.

Domestic rice agriculture had spread across the mainland Indian subcontinent by c.500 BC. The initial spread of rice outside the core zone of the central Gangetic Plains is thought to have been limited by climatic constraints, particularly seasonal rainfall levels, and so the later spread of rice into the dry regions of South India is largely supposed to have relied on irrigation. This has been associated with the development of ritual water features in the Iron Age (c.1000–500 BC), and to the subsequent development of tanks (reservoirs) during the period of Early Historic state development (c.500 BC–500 AD). The identification of early irrigation systems within South Asia has largely relied on early historical texts, and not on direct archaeological evidence. This initial investigation attempts to identify irrigated rice cultivation in the Indian subcontinent by directly examining rice crop remains (phytolith and macrobotanical data) from four sites. The evidence presented here shows that, contrary to accepted narratives, rice agriculture in the Iron Age-Early Historic South India may not have been supported by irrigated paddy fields, but may have relied on seasonal rainfall as elsewhere in the subcontinent. More caution is urged, therefore, when using terms related to ‘irrigation’ and ‘agricultural intensification’ in discussions of the Iron Age and Early Historic South Asia and the related developments of urbanism and state polities. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s12520-019-00795-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The middle Huai River valley, located in the climatic, cultural and agricultural transitional zone in the central-eastern China during the Neolithic, occupies an important position in the study of the origins, development and spread of rice and millet farming in China. Previous studies indicate that rice agriculture has extended to the middle Huai River valley since 8.5 ka BP, and rice domestication was in the early stage between 8.5 and 7.5 ka BP, while the earliest evidence of millet remains discovered in this region was as late as ca. 5.0 ka BP. However, the process of rice domestication after 7.5 ka BP in this region, and when and where foxtail millet and broomcorn millet first extended respectively into this valley and interplayed with rice during the Neolithic period are still unknown. In this study, phytolith analysis of the soil samples from the Shuangdun site during the archaeological excavation, which is a representative site of the Shuangdun Culture in the middle Huai River valley dating back to 7.3–6.8 ka BP, reveals evidence of crops in the middle Huai River valley, China. Our results show that rice with japonica characteristics was the dominant crop at the Shuangdun site, which had a higher domestication rate than that at the Shunshanji site during 8.5–7.5 ka BP in terms of the morphological and morphometric analyses of rice bulliform and double-peaked glume cells, while broomcorn millet only occupied a small proportion of the total amount based on analysis of the quantity and ubiquity of phytoliths. Our data extend the record of broomcorn millet use in the middle Huai River valley by nearly 2000 years. The analysis in this paper not only provides significant evidence for illustrating the transformation of crop structure and the domestication process of rice in the middle Huai River valley, but also brings some clues for mapping the spatiotemporal route for the spread of rice and millets in central-eastern China during the Neolithic.

Phytolith records have provided a new perspective on the reconstruction and interpretation of palaeovegetation in forested regions. However, the reliability of phytolith records for vegetation reconstruction in northern temperate forest regions has not been fully determined, and it needs to be assessed before they can be used in palaeoecological contexts. To address this issue, we analyzed surface soil phytolith assemblages at 108 sites and established a modern soil phytolith reference database for five dominant vegetation communities in Northeast China. The phytolith reference dataset was then used to analyze a stratigraphic sequence of fossil phytolith assemblages from the same region to confirm the reliability of the phytolith-based paleovegetation reconstruction. The results demonstrate that both the phytolith assemblages of surface soils and the phytolith indices (Iw, Ic, Iph and W/G) vary substantially in different temperate forest habitats, and the indices are also well correlated with the vegetation inventory data. Thus, we conclude that modern soil phytoliths are reliable analogues for reconstructing paleovegetation. The modern phytolith reference-based paleovegetation reconstruction indicates that the study area has experienced substantial vegetation change since the late-glacial. The vegetation types ranged from open Larix mixed forest to open woodland, to closed broadleaf forest, and finally to closed Pinus koraiensis mixed forest. The phytolith-based vegetation types since the late-glacial are consistent with those reconstructed by a pollen record from the same stratigraphic profile, and thus our study confirms the reliability of phytolith analysis for interpreting both the entire vegetation landscape and vegetation changes in the northern temperate forest region. Moreover, fossil phytoliths also provide additional information - including the composition of grasses in the understory, changes in the proportions of C3/C4 plants, Larix abundance and tree cover density - which complements that provided by pollen analysis. Our study provides new perspectives on the reliability of phytoliths for reconstructing vegetation dynamics in the northern temperate forest region, and it provides a robust foundation for the application of phytolith analysis in the region.

Archaeobotanical evidence from two Early Historic sites in Sri Lanka, Kantharodai and Kirinda, is reported, providing significant evidence for agricultural diversity beyond the cultivation of rice. These data highlight the potential of systematic archaeobotanical sampling for macro-remains in tropical environments to contribute to the understanding of subsistence history in the tropics. Direct AMS radiocarbon dating confirms both the antiquity of crops and refines site chronologies. Both sites have Oryza sativa subsp. indica rice and evidence of rice crop-processing and millet farming. In addition, phytolith data provide complementary evidence on the nature of early rice cultivation in Sri Lanka. Both Kantharodai and Kirinda possess rice agriculture and a diverse range of cultivated millets (Brachiaria ramosa, Echinochloa frumentacea, Panicum sumatrense, and Setaria verticillata). Pulses of Indian origin were also cultivated, especially Vigna radiata and Macrotyloma uniflorum. Cotton (Gossypium sp.) cultivation is evident from Kirinda. Both sites, but in particular Kirinda, provide evidence for use of the seeds of Alpinia sp., in the cardamom/ginger family (Zingiberaceae), a plausible wild spice, while coconuts (Cocos nucifera) were also found at Kirinda.

The paper presents the result of analysis of charred food on the interior part of the vessels from the graves of the East Manych and West Manych Catacomb archaeological cultures (2500-2350cal bc). The phytolith and pollen analyses identified pollen of wild steppe plants and phytoliths of domesticated gramineous plants determined as barley phytoliths. Direct C-14 dating of one of the samples demonstrates that barley spikelets and stems were used in funeral rites by local steppe communities. However, there are no data suggesting that steppe inhabitants of the Lower Don Region were engaged in agriculture in the mid-3000 bc. Supposedly, barley could have reached the steppes through seasonal migrations of mobile pastoralists to the south, use of North Caucasus grasslands in the economic system of seasonal moves and exchange with local people. Nevertheless, presence of carbonized barley seeds in the occupation layers at North Caucasus settlements of 4000-3000bc requires confirmation by direct C-14 dating of such samples.

This study presents new archaeobotanical evidence for agricultural production in the middle Yellow River region during the Yangshao culture period. Phytolith analyses, together with radiocarbon dating of samples from 10 sites in Zhengzhou, showed that common millet and foxtail millet were cultivated with rice in the region around 4000–3000 cal BC. The ratio of crop remains revealed that common millet was dominant in the crop structure. Rice cultivation was no longer confined to large sites situated in the lowlands and began to spread into the hilly lands and small sites. Furthermore, both dryland and wetland systems may have been used for rice cultivation. This pattern of crop production may have been mainly influenced by social background and artificial selection, which overcame the limitation of environmental factors. Such development of Yangshao agriculture facilitated the establishment of an agricultural society during the fourth millennium BC. It also has implications for understanding the reason why the middle Yellow River region (Central Plain) became known as ‘the cradle of Chinese civilization’.

In recent years, new applications of microremain dietary analysis using dental calculus as a source of dietary data on ancient human subsistence and behaviours have accelerated. The dental calculus of contemporary human and non-human populations with known diets have been used as reference datasets, including the chimpanzees of Taï National Park (Côte d'Ivoire), but explaining the preservation mechanism involved is challenged by our incomplete knowledge of the microremain content within the diets of these reference populations and our rudimentary information on microremain incorporation into dental calculus. Here, we analyse phytoliths in faecal samples to assess to what extent plant phytoliths of a diet are reflected in the dental calculus as well as in the egested faeces. In this study, we identify and document the faecal phytolith assemblages as an indicator of plant consumption in two Western chimpanzees of the Taï National Park (Côte d'Ivoire) before (wet season), during (dry season) and after (dry season) a dust-rich period. Moreover, observational dietary records of these two individuals were compiled to improve the interpretability of this dental calculus phytolith dataset. The faecal phytolith assemblages vary significantly across samples in terms of abundance and diversity. The most common phytolith morphotypes were eudicot plates, single-cell and multi-cell tracheids, monocot rugulose and echinate spheroids and, to a lesser extent, unspecified thick and thin elongates. High loads of grit and other micro-remains (e.g. diatoms) are found during the dry period. Using observational dietary records as a starting point and our faecal results as a terminus, we consider how dental calculus can accumulate phytoliths. Our findings enable identification of the phytolith morphotypes that are under-represented in dental calculus, which is highly informative for future dental calculus research strategies.

Százhalombatta-Földvár Bronze Age tell settlement is one of the most extensively studied sites of Hungary. Interdisciplinary approach is one of the key factors in understanding the past here. Therefore, a range of natural scientific methods are applied, including thin section soil micromorphology and phytolith analysis. The high resolution of these techniques is used to add details that are impossible via traditional archaeological means. In this paper, we aim to look at decision-making in choices of construction materials. A Middle Bronze Age house (ID 3147), belonging to the so-called Vatya Culture, was sampled to investigate the used materials, the building techniques and space use. Earthen floors, clay floor, wall and hearth material are under the microscope for a better understanding of Bronze Age construction and everyday life. Micro fragments are traced to investigate space use and activities inside the house. It is also our intention to further test the conjoint application of the abovementioned methods to add data and encourage work between the experts of the two fields as there is only a handful of such studies available.

The interior regions of South Africa have had less attention devoted to archaeological research than coastal regions, and palaeoenvironmental studies are also more limited. As such, little is known about the interaction between human behaviours and past environments in these semi-arid regions. Here, we present an archaeobotanical and mineralogical study from the Middle Stone Age site of Mwulu’s Cave, Limpopo Province. Our study shows the importance of using taphonomical approaches prior to interpreting archaeobotanical assemblages, while provides with novel information on the plants used by ancient inhabitants of Mwulu’s. The grass phytolith composition is of environmental significance, where a shift from C4 Panicoideae to C3 grasses is observed in the last occupation event. This tentatively suggests a shift in rainfall regime, from summer rainfall conditions to an increase in winter rain, during Marine Isotope Stage 5b in the Polokwane region, or a decrease in rainfall seasonality. Although we are unable to chronostratigraphically associate this change in the plant composition, our study adds evidence in support of previous propositions for an expansion of the winter rainfall zone into the interior regions of South Africa.

Water availability and water management systems were critical for the success of past agricultural societies. One way to determine past water availability is through phytolith ratios as demonstrated by research conducted on modern C3 plants. In order to determine if phytolith ratios in C4 plants are similarly affected by plant water availability, the C4 plant Sorghum bicolor was experimentally grown at three different crop growing stations over a two year period in Jordan. The husks, leaves and stems of the plants grown under the 0% and 100% irrigation regimes were processed and analysed for their sensitive to fixed form phytolith ratio. These results were then compared to results of those conducted using C3 plants. Our results showed that while there were differences in ratios between growing years and the crop growing site, the greatest difference in the ratios was in irrigation regime. Our results also showed, however, that the ratio of sensitive to fixed forms for the samples taken from the husks was far higher than the ratios found in the leaves and stems and far higher than those found in previous studies on C3 grasses. We suggest that if this method is to be used to interpret archaeological phytolith assemblages, an assessment of the likely taxa and plant part composition of the assemblage should first be undertaken through phytolith and macro-botanical analysis.

This paper applies phytolith analysis to bedrock installations at the Early Neolithic site of Paliambela Kolindros in Northern Greece. The phytolith remains retrieved from these installations document for the first time in Greece that the cylindrical cavities dug into the bedrock were used as mortars for pounding and dehusking wheat inflorescences. Shallower basins around, or next to these hollows, were probably used for grinding grain, while the working surfaces in between were used for several purposes related to food preparation and consumption. The detailed examination of phytoliths offers the possibility to reconstruct aspects of agricultural practices which often remained undocumented, particularly valuable for a site dated to the earliest phase of the Neolithic in Greece.

The archaeological evidence from Cova Gran de Santa Linya suggests that during the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age, the site was used as a livestock enclosure where the accumulated excrements were burned, generating a sequence known by the term fumier. Here we present the results of an integrated study of silica phytoliths, dung spherulites, and mineral composition of sedimentary matrix from the remaining Holocene sequence. The use of fire to sanitize the space had important consequences for the preservation of dung spherulites and the accumulation of phytoliths. Phytolith assemblages indicate that the animals enclosed in the cave were mostly sheep that exploited the pastures nearby the site during the year. In this sense, the results from our modern plant reference collection challenge the assumption that grass inflorescence phytolith can be used as a seasonality indicator.

In recent years, ethnoarchaeological studies focusing on herbivore faecal remains within the soils, especially those from goat, sheep and cattle, have shown the importance of their study for identifying socio-economic activities. Thus, an accurate microstratigraphic examination of these deposits can provide us new insights into past land use, site formation processes, activity areas and intensity of use of space, mobility, domestic use of fuel, manuring, and foddering strategies. Mountain landscapes represent a relatively new terrain of investigation for geo-ethnoarchaeology. In this paper, we present a pilot project featuring an applied inter-disciplinary methodology that includes micromorphology, bulk stable isotope analysis (δ13C and δ15N), phytolith, pollen and non-pollen palynomorphs (NPPs) analyses. These were carried out on samples from three high-mountain (up to 1400 m a.s.l.) pastoral sites located at Monti Sibillini, in the Italian central Apennines. Results show that the presence of anthropic organic-rich deposits, even when poorly preserved, (1) allows for an accurate description of herbivore dung internal characteristics, (2) establishes precise microstratigraphy of anthropogenic deposits and husbandry practices related to intensity of use of space, and (3) gives accurate information about former vegetation and landscape use in the local area. Based on this exploratory ethnoarchaeological approach, we discuss the potential of micro-analyses of archaeological decayed or burnt livestock dung in a small set of samples collected during a initial survey for obtaining insights into the environment and husbandry practices from dung and goat stabling floors in a high-mountain context.

International audience; Pendimoun rock-shelter is among the oldest Neolithic sites known on the French littoral (Impressa culture, since ca. 5700 bce). It was discontinuously occupied from the Mesolithic to the end of the Neolithic. During the Neolithic, it was used for pastoral purposes and domestic activities as well as for pottery production. Agriculture and cereal processing are clearly attested during the Impressa occupation (grains, husk and straw macroremains, grindstones) and become less obvious in the overlying layers. Phytolith analysis concerned 1 Mesolithic sample (Sauveterrian culture) and 16 samples covering most of the 6th millennium bce (Impressa, Cardial, and transition to Early Square Mouthed Pottery-SMP cultures). Significant amounts of grass phytoliths and the scarcity of dicot phytoliths suggest that the livestock, whose dung constitutes an important part of the sediment, mainly fed on wild grasses. Inflorescence bract phytoliths are well represented only in the Impressa levels, confirming that cereals were partly processed in situ only during the earliest stages of the Neolithic. Amounts of Bilobate short cells proved to be higher than expected in an area where only a few panicoid species can grow. The three candidates for Bilobate phytolith producers (Setaria spp., Digitaria sanguinalis, Echinochloa crus-galli) all have a short vegetation cycle that lies entirely between the end of spring and the beginning of autumn, suggesting that the shelter was mainly used during that period. The low amount of inflorescence bract phytoliths (except during the Impressa) seems to restrict that range to the period before the ears become mature, namely the end of spring or early summer.

Livestock dung is a valuable material for reconstructing human and animal inter-relations and activity within open areas and built environments. This paper examines the identification and multi-disciplinary analysis of dung remains from three neighbouring sites in the Konya Plain of Central Anatolia, Turkey: Boncuklu (ninth–eighth millennium cal BC), the Çatalhöyük East Mound (eighth–sixth millennium cal BC), and the Late Neolithic occupation at the Pınarbaşı rockshelter (seventh millennium cal BC). It presents and evaluates data on animal management strategies and husbandry practices through the simultaneous examination of plant and faecal microfossils and biomarkers with thin-section micromorphology and integrated phytolith, dung spherulite, and biomolecular analyses, together with comparative reference geo-ethnoarchaeological assemblages. Herbivore dung and other coprogenic materials have been identified predominantly in open areas, pens and midden deposits through micromorphology and the chemical signatures of their depositional contexts and composition. Accumulations of herbivore faecal material and burnt remains containing calcitic spherulites and phytoliths have provided new information on animal diet, fodder and dung fuel. Evidence from phytoliths from in situ penning deposits at early Neolithic Çatalhöyük have provided new insights into foddering/grazing practices by identifying highly variable herbivorous regimes including both dicotyledonous and grass-based diets. This review illustrates the variability of dung depositswithin early agricultural settlements and their potential for tracing continuity and change in ecological diversity, herd management strategies and foddering, health, energy and dung use, as well as the complexity of interactions between people and animals in this key region during the early Holocene., We are grateful to all the archaeological team members and to the project directors Prof. Ian Hodder and Prof. Douglas Baird for their support and helpful discussions, as well as to the government representatives and the General Directorate for Cultural Heritage and Museums and the Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism for permission to export samples and support. Special thanks are due to Dr. Seona Anderson and Dr. Füsun Ertuğ for the samples for micromorphological analysis fromtheir ethnographic research.MP’s work has been funded by the European Union’s MICROARCHEODUNG project. The project has received funding from the EU Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No H2020-MSCA-IF-2015-702529. AGS is a Wainwright Early Career Fellow at the Oriental Institute, University of Oxford. Her research has been supported by an Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) doctoral grant, a University of Reading Research Studentship and Travel Award, a British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara (BIAA) study grant, and a John Templeton Foundation Award (No 52003, P.I.: I. Hodder) that also supported research conducted by W. Matthews on Çatalhöyük. The GC/MS analyses referred to briefly here and more fully elsewhere and in forthcoming publications, were supported by NERC LSMSF grant BRIS/86/1015, and we are very grateful to Dr. Ian D. Bull for all his support.

This paper examines the contribution of microscopic multi-proxy approaches to the study of early husbandry practices and animal diet by integrated micromorphological, phytolith, and calcitic dung spherulite analyses of midden deposits at the three neighbouring Neolithic sites of Boncuklu (9th–8th millennium cal BC), Pınarbaşı (7th millennium cal BC) and Çatalhöyük (8th–6th millennium cal BC) in the Konya Plain, Central Turkey. The results reveal considerable chronological and contextual variation in human-animal inter-relations in open areas between different communities and sites. At Boncuklu, middens display well-defined areas where phytoliths and substantial accumulations of omnivore faecal matter low in spherulite content have been identified. By contrast, open spaces at the Late Neolithic campsite of Pınarbaşı comprise large concentrations of herbivore dung material associated with neonatal ovicaprine remains from spring birthing. Here, the deposits represent repeated dung-burning events, and include high concentrations of dung spherulites and phytoliths from wild grasses, and leaves and culms of reeds that, we suggest here, derive from fodder and fuel sources. Late middens at Çatalhöyük are characterised by thick sequences derived from multiple fuel burning events and rich in ashes, charred plants, articulated phytoliths – mainly from the husk of cereals, as well as the leaves and stems of reeds and sedges – and omnivore/ruminant coprolites, the abundance of the latter declining markedly in the latest levels of occupation. The application of this integrated microscopic approach to open areas has contributed to unravelling the complexity of formation processes at these sites, providing new insights into herding practices, diet, and the ecological diversity of Neolithic communities in Central Anatolia., This work was supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Council [grant number 1227582]; the British Institute at Ankara [Study Grant]; and the Horizon 2020 Marie Sklodowska-Curie action [grant number H2020-MSCA-IF-2015-702529]. This research was developed within the framework of the Çatalhöyük Research Project and the Boncuklu Project, and it was supported by an Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) doctoral grant and a British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara (BIAA) study grant awarded to AGS. MP’s research received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme under the Marie Sklodowska Curie grant agreement H2020-MSCA-IF-2015-702529.

The integrated results of micromorphology, plant macrofossil, pollen, phytolith, and non-pollen palynomorph analyses represent an important study of two thirteenth-century Teutonic Order castles at Karksi (Livonia), and Elbląg (Prussia). The research examines deposits that formed during the period of active crusading. At Karksi, the investigation of a midden and of the organic-rich sediment beneath allows the diachronic use of this area to be understood. Freshwater aquatic indicators are consistent with the occurrence of shallow stagnant water, as also suggested by a waterlaid pond sediment identified in thin-section. Coprophilous spore taxa suggest the use of the pond as a watering hole. Plant macrofossils from the midden represent a range of habitats, mostly from wet/damp areas, as well as pastures and meadows, and also woodlands. Fragments of millet are embedded within herbivore dung in thin-section showing the use of this grain as fodder. At Elbląg, parasite ova may derive from animal feces as they also occur in the dung observed in thin-section, and a range of coprophilous fungal spore taxa were extracted. The results reveal information about the range of livestock that the Teutonic Knights kept, whereabouts within the castles the animals were stabled, and what fodder was used.

International audience; This paper presents the results of archaeobotanical studies carried out on the Late Mesolithic layer at Melnychna-Krucha (6460-6100 cal BC) and the Linearbandkeramik (LBK) site of Kamyane-Zavallia (5295-4960 cal BC), close to the Southern Bug River. Despite the relatively modest dataset presented in this paper, these preliminary results provide new data for a region where the environmental setting and the uses of plant resources during the Early Atlantic period are poorly understood. The main taxa used for firewood are quite similar at Melnychna-Krucha and Kamyane-Zavallia, although they were occupied 1000 years apart. Fraxinus (ash) and Quercus (oak) dominate both charcoal assemblages. These taxa, as well as Ulmus (elm), could have grown together in the alluvial deciduous forest, probably on the Southern Bug riverbank, close to both sites. Carpinus (hornbean) was present but probably still not abundant around Kamyane-Zavallia at the end of the 6 th millennium. Macroremains and phytolith demonstrate that the plant production economy (cultivation, cereal processing) was well developed and very similar to other European LBK sites. At Melnychna-Krucha, plant macro-and microremains did not indicate a productive subsistence.

Since Naomi Miller’s first discussion of dung fuel within macro-botanical samples from Malyan, Iran, considerations of dung fuel across Southwest Asia have become commonplace, yet archaeobotanists remain divided on: (1) the extent to which dung fuel contributed to archaeobotanical assemblages relative to remnants of repeated crop processing and household activities; and (2) the plant-based, middle-range theories that should be used to infer the presence of dung within macro-botanical assemblages. Here we present a case-study integrating a simple, well-established geo-archaeological approach to assess the presence and relative abundance of dung spherulites within paired sediment and flotation samples from Ubaid period Tell Zeidan, Syria (5300–5100 bc). Spherulite data generated from “sediment smears” are integrated with macro-botanical and phytolith data to assess elevated concentrations of dung within samples. Our analyses demonstrate that plant-based depositional processes across a site are complex, reflecting the rich nature of plant use in antiquity. By using a multi-proxy approach, it is possible to differentiate between predominantly fuel-based deposits and those resulting from predominantly crop-processing processes with greater resolution. This study documents the use of wood fuels in hearths and dung fuel within pyrotechnic features and an oven during the Ubaid period, thereby contributing to discussions of fuel selection and the Secondary Products Revolution. When spherulites are preserved within sediment in abundance, they are also present in floated material, so it is possible to use this approach to consider the presence of dung within archived macro-botanical samples and resolve decade-old debates.

Depth to water table (DWT, the depth from the water surface to the top of the peat surface) is one of the most important environmental variables related to the habitat types and distribution of vegetation within a subalpine peatland. The distribution of phytolith assemblages and basic environmental data from 43 surface soil samples with significant ecological and hydrological gradients were investigated to generate transfer functions for quantitative reconstruction of paleoenvironmental changes in Dajiuhu peatland, central China. Detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) and redundancy analysis (RDA) were employed to explore the relationship between main environmental variables and phytolith morphotypes and distributions. Our results indicate that the spatial distribution of phytoliths was significantly correlated with the DWT (25% variance), total organic carbon (TOC, 10% variance) and magnetic susceptibility (χ, 7% variance). We established the transfer functions for the significant variables based on modern analogue technique (MAT), weighted averaging techniques (WA) and weighted averaging partial least squares (WA-PLS), and model performance was assessed using bootstrap cross-validation. The high correspondence of the predicted DWT results based on phytolith-environment calibration data with observed data reflects that the phytolith-based WA-PLS is a reliable effective calibration method for the quantitative DWT reconstruction of ombrotrophic (rain-fed) subalpine peatland.

This study aims to contribute to the interpretation of ephemeral sites by exploring the efficacy of geochemistry and phytolith analysis to identify activity areas in seasonally occupied ethnographic sites. The application of a portable X ray fluorescence (XRF) instrument and phytolith analysis to soil samples from six Bedouin campsites at Wadi Faynan, Jordan, provided insights about anthropogenic enrichment patterns and the effects of short periods of abandonment on these. The compatibility of the two analysis techniques and means to combine the results of both are addressed. The results of this study suggest that soil signatures can be found in ephemeral sites following abandonment, even in dynamic and harsh environments. The efficacy of the geochemical analysis to indicate variance within the data was found to be greater than that of the phytolith analysis in these case studies, while certain trends within the phytolith results were more useful in identifying specific activities. Due to the compatibility of the geochemical and phytolith data, it is proposed that a serial or parallel approach should be taken for their statistical analysis.

Northern China has been identified as an independent centre of domestication for various types of millet and other plant species, but tracing the earliest evidence for the exploitation of wild cereals and thus the actual domestication process has proven challenging. Evidence from microscopic analyses of stone tools, including use-wear, starch and phytolith analyses, however, show that in the Shizitan region of north China, various plants have been exploited as far back as 28000 years ago, and wild millets have been harvested and processed by the time of the Last Glacial Maximum, 24000 years ago. This is some 18000–14000 years before the earliest evidence for domesticated millet in this region.

Neolithic tells are traditionally considered synonymous to prolonged and persistent human activity. In this paper, micro-contextual examination of dung-related evidence at the Neolithic tell of Koutroulou Magoula, central Greece challenges this anthropocentric view. Thin section analysis demonstrates the abundance of dung indicators – including faecal spherulites, phytoliths, phosphatic impregnative features, and microlaminated fabrics – within a range of deposits and contexts across the site; such evidence was observed in built and unbuilt spaces, and enabled identification of possible penning areas and documentation of the use of dung as fuel source. Targeted archaeobotanical and phytolith analyses of dung-rich deposits point to diverse animal feeding practices and joint human-animal engagement with a range of ecological resources. Based on this integrated evidence which illustrates the significance of animals in co-creating and sharing living environments with humans at Koutroulou Magoula, we argue for the value of a multi-species perspective in Neolithic research.

The eastern coastal zone of China is densely populated and widely recognized as a center of rice domestication, which has undergone dramatic sea-level fluctuation during the Holocene epoch. Hemudu culture is distributed mainly in the eastern coastal area and was once presumed as a mature agricultural economy based on rice, making it an ideal case for examining the remarkable human-environment interaction in the Lower Yangtze River. Though numerous studies have been conducted on the cultural evolution, ecological environment, and rice domestication of Hemudu culture, the impact of sea-level fluctuation on human settlement and food production remains controversial. In this study, we report high-resolution pollen, phytolith, and diatom records, and accurately measured elevation from the Yushan site, which is the closest site of Hemudu culture to the modern coastline. Based on the data gathered, we suggest that the Hemudu culture and subsequent Liangzhu culture developed in the context of regression and were interrupted by two transgressions that occurred during 6300-5600 BP and 5000-4500 BP. The regional ecological environment of the Yushan site alternated between intertidal mudflat and freshwater wetlands induced by sea-level fluctuations in the mid-late Holocene. Though rice was cultivated in the wetland as early as 6700 BP, this cultivation was subsequently discontinued due to the transgression; thus, full domestication of rice did not occur until 5600 BP in this region. Comprehensive analysis of multiple proxies in this study promote the understanding of the relationship between environmental evolution, cultural interruption, and rice domestication.

Tropical semi-arid grasslands are a widespread and ecologically and economically important terrestrial biome. Here, we use paleoecology to understand woodland–grassland transitions across the mid- to late-Holocene period in the Banni grassland, western India. Multi proxy analyses involving palynology, phytoliths and elemental geochemistry were carried out on two sediment cores retrieved from wetlands (Chachi and Luna), to understand temporal fluctuations in vegetation, moisture availability and other environmental parameters. Based on the results, the Chachi core was divided into two major climatic phases. Phase 1 (4600–2500 cal. yr BP) was characterised by high precipitation and abundance of pollen types and phytolith morphotypes that indicate the presence of woody savanna, and mesic herbaceous taxa. Phase 2 (2500 cal. yr BP to the present) was characterised by lower precipitation, lower abundance of mesic taxa and an increase in grass phytolith abundance. However, the period from ~1000 cal. yr BP to the present was characterised by the increased abundance of leguminous taxa, dryland herbs/shrubs and a decline in grass phytolith abundance. The Luna core (~1000 cal. yr BP to the present) also showed results matching with the Chachi core for this latter period. Overall, moisture availability in the ecosystem appears to have declined since 4600 cal. yr BP, and the vegetation has responded to this. Although the balance between tree, shrub and grass elements has fluctuated, overall, the region has remained as an open ‘grass and shrub savanna’ with sparse woody vegetation throughout this period. Our study provides insights into the vegetation dynamics and environmental settings in a poorly understood tropical arid-grassland ecosystem from Asia during the mid-late-Holocene.

Phytolith analysis was conducted on soil samples from an archeological profile at the Hehuashan site, located in the upper Qiantang River region, China. This paper focuses on: (1) changes on the morphometric features of Oryza-type bulliform phytoliths from the rice leaves of the Early Neolithic Hehuashan site, (2) human adaptations during the Early Holocene, and (3) the cultivation of rice by Early Neolithic occupants in the upper Qiantang River region. The phytolith assemblage before and during the Early Neolithic Shangshan Culture occupation of the Hehuashan site indicates a landscape composed of reeds (Phragmites australis), rice (Oryza sp.), Bambusoideae, and some woody plants. The amount of Oryza-type bulliform phytoliths and the number of scale-like decorations present along their margins increased from the lowest to the uppermost deposits at the site. The change in the amount and morphology of bulliform phytoliths indicates the presence of wild rice around the site at the time of human occupation, which provides evidence of a shift from the collection and possible manipulation of wild rice to cultivation during the Shangshan Culture period (11400–8600 BP).

The Dongzhao site is located in Zhengzhou on the Central Plains of China and has been dated to between the late Longshan culture (between 4500 BP and 4000 BP) and the Zhou dynasty (between 3046 BP and 2256 BP). Phytolith analyses were performed on 36, 43, and 14 sediment samples collected from this site, which have been dated to the Xinzhai (between 3870 BP and 3720 BP), Erlitou (between 3735 BP and 3530 BP), and Erligang (between 3600 BP and 3300 BP) periods, respectively, in order to develop a better understanding of agricultural practices and cropping structures during the Xia and Shang dynasties. The results of this study suggest that agricultural practices in use at Dongzhao comprised a mixed farming system in which broomcorn millet, foxtail millet, rice, and wheat were grown. Data show that broomcorn millet was the dominant crop during the Xinzhai and Erligang periods, while the foxtail millet was a secondary crop, and that both rice and wheat were minor components of this system. The proportions of rice decreased while those of wheat increased over time through these periods, and high ubiquities of scutiform-bulliform phytoliths from reeds were commonly observed, suggesting that these plants were widely utilized, and probably managed during both the Xinzhai and Erligang periods. The findings reported in this study confirm the fact that phytolith analyses can complement and strengthen interpretations drawn on the basis of other botanical remains within an archaeological context. Analysis of phytoliths, in tandem with interpretation of carbonized plant remains from the Dongzhao site, affords a range of new insights concerning the development of agricultural structures on the Central Plains of China during the Xia and Shang dynasties, and provides new evidence highlighting the probable relationship between agricultural structures and the origin and early development of Chinese civilization.

This work presents new data from phytolith and speleothem analyses that cover the middle to late Holocene from northeastern Iraq in the Kurdistan region. Coupling these data with previous work, we demonstrate how the region’s environment and climate developed during a time when agriculture became not only established but settlements started to transform into larger urban areas. Results demonstrate a wetter phase during the middle Holocene relative to the present period; a highly seasonal climate with one rainy season is also suggested between 8025 ± 38 and 6977 ± 219 BP. Phytoliths not only suggest a relatively wet environment but they also indicate a diversity of plants used for settlement activity. Sedimentary results complement the indication of a relatively wetter middle Holocene. Archaeologically, terraced construction found in Gurga Chiya and the presence of drought tolerant crops suggest adaptation to stronger, seasonal rains and seasonal droughts in the middle Holocene. Sedimentary, phytolith, and speleothem results suggest relatively drier late-Holocene conditions, although the region continued to be conducive for rainfed agriculture.

Edge-glossed flakes, usually recognised as stone tools with macroscopically visible polish from use, have been documented in parts of Southeast Asia from contexts spanning the past 12,000 years and possibly more than 30,000 years. It has been proposed that the edges of these flakes were polished by cutting, splitting or otherwise processing siliceous and fibrous plants for matting, basketry and bindings, and possibly by the reaping of cereals such as rice. Previous studies of use-wear on edge-glossed flakes in Southeast Asia have suggested several tool functions, including the cutting, splitting and scraping of plants with few or no phytoliths (e.g., Pandanaceae) and highly siliceous plants, with high phytolith content, such as Arecaceae palms (e.g., rattan) and Poaceae grasses (e.g., rice, bamboo and cattail reeds). Our study of the use-wear on 16 edge-glossed flakes from layers spanning the past 18,000 years at Liang Bua, a limestone cave on the Indonesian island of Flores, Indonesia, indicates processing of various plant taxa, including Poaceae grasses, Arecaceae palm and wood. The edge-glossed flakes from Liang Bua have features of micropolish that indicate they were probably linked with fibrecraft. Eleven of the 16 Liang Bua artefacts with edge-gloss are between about 18,580 and 11,750 years old, from artefact assemblages associated with modern humans; they currently represent the earliest evidence of these behaviours on Flores. No edge-glossed flakes have yet been identified in the 190,000–50,000-year-old artefact assemblages associated with Homo floresiensis.

The Songnen grasslands were traditionally thought to be dominated by Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae plants as early as the late Pleistocene. However, increasing evidence has called that interpretation into question. To shed new light on the paleovegetation evolution of the arid and semi-arid steppe in North China, phytolith assemblages preserved in the region’s sand-paleosol sequence (section Daike) are used as a proxy for paleovegetation structure. Results show that both the sand and paleosol layers in the Songnen grassland sections contain well-preserved phytoliths attributed to different families of grass. This is the first direct evidence of the nature of the vegetation that existed during the sandy layer episodes. Moreover, the phytolith evidence represented in the samples indicates that plant successions happened within the subfamilies of Poaceae through the time. Referring to phytoliths in modern plants and topsoils, and using statistical analyses, we propose that phytolith assemblages in the section Daike originated from Poaceae-dominant communities rather than an Artemisia-Chenopodiaceae ecosystem. The phytoliths, and evidence from the historical and modern pollen-vegetation relationships, lead to rejection of the hypothesis of a past widespread Artemisia-Chenopodiaceae ecosystem in the Songnen grasslands. Using published radiocarbon and thermoluminescence data, it is proposed that the present Poaceae-dominated grasslands developed as early as the early Holocene. This study also highlights the usefulness of phytolith analysis in paleovegetation reconstruction in arid and semi-arid lands.