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The analysis of organic residues in pottery can provide abundant information on the lives of ancient people, including the natural resources consumed, the techniques applied, the functions of pottery, and so on. In this paper, a variety of methods, including FT-IR (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy), GC–MS (gas chromatography-mass spectrometry), SEM (scanning electron microscopy) and SR-μCT (synchrotron radiation micro-computed tomography), have been employed to characterize the carbonized residues from an amphora, unearthed from the Changning site, Qinghai Province, Northwest China. The pottery residues were identified as birch bark tar, so ancient people in China could have used the particular local plant resources, birch bark, to produce tar as early as the Qijia cultural period (c. 4,000–3,500 bp). The birch bark tar could have been used to make composite tools discovered at the Changning site, and the amphora has probably been used for tar production. This, to our knowledge so far, is the earliest evidence for the use of birch bark tar in China. Due to the special geographical location of the Gansu-Qinghai Region, and the transition of subsistence strategy during the Qijia cultural period, the production and utilization of birch bark tar could not rule out the possibility of western influence, which needs further evidence.

The archaeological culture found in Xiaohe Cemetery (1980–1450 BC) is one of the early Bronze Age cultures in Xinjiang, northwestern China. The material assemblages from Xiaohe culture display features with both eastern and western influences. These east-west cultural and dietary interactions may be observed via the diet of the Xiaohe population. This paper examined the stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes of human and animal bones and human hairs from the Xiaohe Cemetery and compared with those of human bones from the Gumugou Cemetery, another Xiaohe culture site. The results indicate that the diets of the peoples from the Xiaohe culture varied significantly over different periods. The unified diets of the earlier periods reflect that an admixed population first settled in the Lop Nur region and primarily engaged in animal husbandry. In the later periods, the transformations in the human diets in this region reflect that new immigrants constantly relocated here and promoted population complexity over time. Moreover, this population occasionally produced small quantities of domesticated wheat and millet. The complex population and diversified economy of the Xiaohe culture were due to the expansion of the coeval cultures in the Eurasian steppe and eastern immigrants. Additionally, the millet cereal was probably mainly used for ritual practices rather than for staple food in the later periods.

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC/MS) were conducted to identify a birch bark quiver from Ergonghe Reservoir Cemetery (the Tang Dynasty, A.D. 618–907) in Xinjiang, Northwest China. White substance on the bark surface was identified as gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O) by FTIR and X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD). The gypsum was probably residual white pigment of colored painting on the birch bark quiver. This is the first time that birch bark has been scientifically identified in China and it also provides the earliest evidence of colored painting on a birch bark artifact in ancient China. The minimally destructive methods are informative and promising for the analysis of ancient samples. Birch species are widely distributed in North China and ancient nomadic people put the bark to use in many aspects of their lives, reflecting the considerable importance of birch exploitation in their local life.

Archaeological dental calculus has emerged as a rich source of ancient biomolecules, including proteins. Previous analyses of proteins extracted from ancient dental calculus revealed the presence of the dietary milk protein β-lactoglobulin, providing direct evidence of dairy consumption in the archaeological record. However, the potential for calculus to preserve other food-related proteins has not yet been systematically explored. Here we analyse shotgun metaproteomic data from 100 archaeological dental calculus samples ranging from the Iron Age to the post-medieval period (eighth century BC to nineteenth century AD) in England, as well as 14 dental calculus samples from contemporary dental patients and recently deceased individuals, to characterize the range and extent of dietary proteins preserved in dental calculus. In addition to milk proteins, we detect proteomic evidence of foodstuffs such as cereals and plant products, as well as the digestive enzyme salivary amylase. We discuss the importance of optimized protein extraction methods, data analysis approaches and authentication strategies in the identification of dietary proteins from archaeological dental calculus. This study demonstrates that proteomic approaches can robustly identify foodstuffs in the archaeological record that are typically under-represented due to their poor macroscopic preservation.

Mortars are the layers paved on the surface of timber, earth or stone before painting and drawing. The analysis of their material composition and manufacture technology is necessary for revealing old technological approaches, selecting a suitable technological process in restoration and protection, and guiding the development of traditional technology of Chinese painting and colored drawings. According to ancient literature, crop flour and blood have been used as binders in the mortars of Chinese wooden buildings. However, little work is published on their scientific identification, and the reported methods could not determine their precise origins, which is important to understanding ancient mortar technology. In this study, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) and starch grain analysis were employed to analyze the three mortars taken from the Old Summer Palace (18th and early 19th centuries), the Eastern Royal Tombs of the Qing Dynasty (middle 17th to early 20th centuries) and the Taiyuan Confucius Temple (late 19th century), respectively. FTIR analysis indicated the presence of proteins, and then different organic additives, namely, wheaten flour, cattle blood and pig blood, were identified respectively in the three mortars by LC/MS/MS analysis. Starch grain analysis also confirmed the proteomic results. Thus, proteomic analysis is highly effective for identifying the nature and origin of organic additives in the mortars of ancient painting.

With the emergence and progress of composite tools in the Middle Stone Age, the adhesive became one of the most widely used materials by early human societies. However, the precise composition identification of adhesive in archaeological remains is a real analytical challenge, because the adhesive mainly consists of organic materials that are susceptible to decay during burial process. Of particular interest is to know which animal/plant species were being exploited for glue manufacturing other than for food. The arid climate of the Xiaohe Cemetery, located in Taklamakan Desert, northwestern China, provides favorable conditions for the preservation of organic residues. A bone sculpture-inlaid wooden artifact was collected from the Xiaohe Cemetery, with some semi-transparent yellowish adhesive exposed due to the detachment of an inlaid bone sculpture. In this paper, micro samples of the adhesive were scraped for FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, primary examination) and subsequent proteomic analysis to determine the proteinous component(s) and precise origin(s). The identified tryptic peptides match most closely to known bovine collagen markers, suggesting that this adhesive was an animal glue made from cattle. These results reveal the diverse utilizations of cattle in the Xiaohe Cemetery, which provided not only meat, milk, hides, sinews and dung, but also leftover parts for manufacturing adhesive. This is the earliest evidence of adhesive identified in China up to our knowledge, which sheds light on adhesive development around 3500 years ago.