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Arabidopsis thaliana cryptochrome 2 (CRY2) mediates photoperiodic promotion of floral initiation and blue light inhibition of hypocotyl elongation. It has been hypothesized that photoexcitation derepresses CRY2 by disengaging its C-terminal domain from the N-terminal PHR domain. To test this hypothesis, we analyzed activities of CRY2 fused to green fluorescent protein (GFP) at either the N terminus (GFP-CRY2) or the C terminus (CRY2-GFP). While GFP-CRY2 exerts light-dependent biochemical and physiological activities similar to those of the endogenous CRY2, CRY2-GFP showed constitutive biochemical and physiological activities. CRY2-GFP is constitutively phosphorylated, it promotes deetiolation in both dark and light, and it activates floral initiation in both long-day and short-day photoperiods. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that photoexcited CRY2 disengages its C-terminal domain from the PHR domain to become active. Surprisingly, we found that CRY2-GFP, but not GFP-CRY2, formed distinct nuclear bodies in response to blue light. Compared with GFP-CRY2 or the endogenous CRY2, CRY2-GFP degradation was significantly retarded in response to blue light, suggesting that the nuclear bodies may result from accumulation of photoexcited CRY2-GFP waiting to be degraded. Consistent with this interpretation, we showed that both GFP-CRY2 and endogenous CRY2 formed nuclear bodies in the presence of the 26S-proteasome inhibitors that block blue light-dependent CRY2 degradation.

Cryptochromes (CRY) are photolyase-like blue-light receptors that mediate light responses in plants and animals. How plant cryptochromes act in response to blue light is not well understood. We report here the identification and characterization of the Arabidopsis CIB1 (cryptochrome-interacting basic-helix-loop-helix) protein. CIB1 interacts with CRY2 (cryptochrome 2) in a blue light-specific manner in yeast and Arabidopsis cells, and it acts together with additional CIB1-related proteins to promote CRY2-dependent floral initiation. CIB1 binds to G box (CACGTG) in vitro with a higher affinity than its interaction with other E-box elements (CANNTG). However, CIB1 stimulates FT messenger RNA expression, and it interacts with chromatin DNA of the FT gene that possesses various E-box elements except G box. We propose that the blue light-dependent interaction of cryptochrome(s) with CIB1 and CIB1-related proteins represents an early photoreceptor signaling mechanism in plants.

CRY2 is a blue light receptor regulating light inhibition of hypocotyl elongation and photoperiodic flowering in Arabidopsis thaliana. The CRY2 protein is found primarily in the nucleus, and it is known to undergo blue light-dependent phosphorylation and degradation. However, the subcellular location where CRY2 exerts its function or undergoes blue light-dependent phosphorylation and degradation remains unclear. In this study, we analyzed the function and regulation of conditionally nuclear-localized CRY2. Our results show that CRY2 mediates blue light inhibition of hypocotyl elongation and photoperiodic promotion of floral initiation in the nucleus. Consistent with this result and a hypothesis that blue light-dependent phosphorylation is associated with CRY2 function, we demonstrate that CRY2 undergoes blue light-dependent phosphorylation in the nucleus. CRY2 phosphorylation is required for blue light-dependent CRY2 degradation, but only a limited quantity of CRY2 is phosphorylated at any given moment in seedlings exposed to blue light, which explains why continuous blue light illumination is required for CRY2 degradation. Finally, we showed that CRY2 is ubiquitinated in response to blue light and that ubiquitinated CRY2 is degraded by the 26S proteasome in the nucleus. These findings demonstrate that a photoreceptor can complete its posttranslational life cycle (from protein modification, to function, to degradation) inside the nucleus.

Cryptochromes are blue light receptors that regulate photomorphogenesis in plants and the circadian clock in animals and plants. Arabidopsis cryptochrome 2 (CRY2) mediates blue light inhibition of hypocotyl elongation and photoperiodic control of floral initiation. CRY2 undergoes blue light-induced phosphorylation, which was hypothesized to be associated with CRY2 photoactivation. To further investigate how light activates CRY2, we analyzed the physiological activities and phosphorylation of various CRY2 fusion proteins in transgenic plants. Our results showed that an 80-residue motif, referred to as NC80, was sufficient to confer the physiological function of CRY2. The GUS-NC80 fusion protein expressed in transgenic plants is constitutively active but unphosphorylated, suggesting that the blue light-induced CRY2 phosphorylation causes a conformational change to derepress the NC80 motif. Consistent with this hypothesis, the CRY2 C-terminal tail was found to be required for the blue light-induced CRY2 phosphorylation but not for the CRY2 activity. We propose that the PHR domain and the C-terminal tail of the unphosphorylated CRY2 form a "closed" conformation to suppress the NC80 motif in the absence of light. In response to blue light, the C-terminal tail of CRY2 is phosphorylated and electrostatically repelled from the surface of the PHR domain to form an "open" conformation, resulting in derepression of the NC80 motif and signal transduction to trigger photomorphogenic responses.

Photoperiodism is a day-length-dependent seasonal change of physiological or developmental activities that is widely found in plants and animals. Photoperiodic flowering in plants is regulated by photosensory receptors including the red/far-red light-receptor phytochromes and the blue/UV-A light-receptor cryptochromes. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the specific roles of individual photoreceptors have remained poorly understood. Here, we report a study of the day-length-dependent response of cryptochrome 2 (cry2) and phytochrome A (phyA) and their role as day-length sensors in Arabidopsis. The protein abundance of cry2 and phyA showed a diurnal rhythm in plants grown in short-day but not in plants grown in long-day. The short-day-specific diurnal rhythm of cry2 is determined primarily by blue light-dependent cry2 turnover. Consistent with a proposition that cry2 and phyA are the major day-length sensors in Arabidopsis, we show that phyA mediates far-red light promotion of flowering with modes of action similar to that of cry2. Based on these results and a finding that the photoperiodic responsiveness of plants depends on light quality, a model is proposed to explain how individual phytochromes and cryptochromes work together to confer photoperiodic responsiveness in Arabidopsis.

Cryptochromes are blue/ultraviolet-A light receptors that mediate various light responses in plants and animals. But the initial photochemical reaction of cryptochrome is still unclear. For example, although most photoreceptors are known to undergo light-dependent protein modification such as phosphorylation, no blue-light dependent phosphorylation has been reported for a cryptochrome. Arabidopsis cryptochrome 2 (cry2) mediates light regulation of seedling development and photoperiodic flowering. The physiological activity and cellular level of cry2 protein are light-dependent, and protein protein interactions are important for cry2 function. Here we report that cry2 undergoes a blue-light-dependent phosphorylation, and that cry2 phosphorylation is associated with its function and regulation. Our results suggest that, in the absence of light, cry2 remains unphosphorylated, inactive and stable; absorption of blue light induces the phosphorylation of cry2, triggering photomorphogenic responses and eventually degradation of the photoreceptor.