Search

The phytohormone auxin triggers transcriptional reprogramming through a well-characterized perception machinery in the nucleus. By contrast, mechanisms that underlie fast effects of auxin, such as the regulation of ion fluxes, rapid phosphorylation of proteins or auxin feedback on its transport, remain unclear1–3. Whether auxin-binding protein 1 (ABP1) is an auxin receptor has been a source of debate for decades1,4. Here we show that a fraction of Arabidopsis thaliana ABP1 is secreted and binds auxin specifically at an acidic pH that is typical of the apoplast. ABP1 and its plasma-membrane-localized partner, transmembrane kinase 1 (TMK1), are required for the auxin-induced ultrafast global phospho-response and for downstream processes that include the activation of H+-ATPase and accelerated cytoplasmic streaming. abp1 and tmk mutants cannot establish auxin-transporting channels and show defective auxin-induced vasculature formation and regeneration. An ABP1(M2X) variant that lacks the capacity to bind auxin is unable to complement these defects in abp1 mutants. These data indicate that ABP1 is the auxin receptor for TMK1-based cell-surface signalling, which mediates the global phospho-response and auxin canalization.

Summary Gravitropism is an adaptive response that orients plant growth parallel to the gravity vector. Asymmetric distribution of the phytohormone auxin is a necessary prerequisite to the tropic bending both in roots and shoots. During hypocotyl gravitropic response, the PIN3 auxin transporter polarizes within gravity‐sensing cells to redirect intercellular auxin fluxes. First gravity‐induced PIN3 polarization to the bottom cell membranes leads to the auxin accumulation at the lower side of the organ, initiating bending and, later, auxin feedback‐mediated repolarization restores symmetric auxin distribution to terminate bending. Here, we performed a forward genetic screen to identify regulators of both PIN3 polarization events during gravitropic response. We searched for mutants with defective PIN3 polarizations based on easy‐to‐score morphological outputs of decreased or increased gravity‐induced hypocotyl bending. We identified the number of hypocotyl reduced bending (hrb) and hypocotyl hyperbending (hhb) mutants, revealing that reduced bending correlated typically with defective gravity‐induced PIN3 relocation whereas all analyzed hhb mutants showed defects in the second, auxin‐mediated PIN3 relocation. Next‐generation sequencing‐aided mutation mapping identified several candidate genes, including SCARECROW and ACTIN2, revealing roles of endodermis specification and actin cytoskeleton in the respective gravity‐ and auxin‐induced PIN polarization events. The hypocotyl gravitropism screen thus promises to provide novel insights into mechanisms underlying cell polarity and plant adaptive development., Significance Statement Plant gravitropism involves two distinct cellular polarizations of PIN3 auxin transporter to redirect intercellular auxin fluxes for the bending response. Here we identified a number of Arabidopsis mutants defective specifically in the PIN3 polarization events, establishing that gravity‐induced polarization is required for bending initiation and auxin feedback‐mediated second polarization for its termination. Molecular analysis of selected mutants revealed a crucial role of SCARECROW‐mediated endodermis specification and actin cytoskeleton in these polarization events during gravitropism.

A Different Route The plant hormone auxin regulates a variety of developmental processes and responses to environmental inputs, often via changes in gene transcription. Xu et al. (p. 1025 ) analyzed a signaling pathway involving ABP1 (auxin-binding protein 1) that affects the cytoskeleton and endocytosis in Arabidopsis without changing gene transcription. Instead, ABP1 functions at the cell surface to bind auxin and a family of membrane kinases, thereby activating intracellular guanosine triphosphatases to initiate important developmental changes in cell shape.

To sustain a lifelong ability to initiate organs, plants retain pools of undifferentiated cells with a preserved proliferation capacity. The root pericycle represents a unique tissue with conditional meristematic activity, and its tight control determines initiation of lateral organs. Here we show that the meristematic activity of the pericycle is constrained by the interaction with the adjacent endodermis. Release of these restraints by elimination of endodermal cells by single-cell ablation triggers the pericycle to re-enter the cell cycle. We found that endodermis removal substitutes for the phytohormone auxin-dependent initiation of the pericycle meristematic activity. However, auxin is indispensable to steer the cell division plane orientation of new organ-defining divisions. We propose a dual, spatiotemporally distinct role for auxin during lateral root initiation. In the endodermis, auxin releases constraints arising from cell-to-cell interactions that compromise the pericycle meristematic activity, whereas, in the pericycle, auxin defines the orientation of the cell division plane to initiate lateral roots.

Plants adjust their growth according to gravity. Gravitropism involves gravity perception, signal transduction, and asymmetric growth response, with organ bending as a consequence [1]. Asymmetric growth results from the asymmetric distribution of the plant-specific signaling molecule auxin [2] that is generated by lateral transport, mediated in the hypocotyl predominantly by the auxin transporter PIN-FORMED3 (PIN3) [3–5]. Gravity stimulation polarizes PIN3 to the bottom sides of endodermal cells, correlating with increased auxin accumulation in adjacent tissues at the lower side of the stimulated organ, where auxin induces cell elongation and, hence, organ bending. A curvature response allows the hypocotyl to resume straight growth at a defined angle [6], implying that at some point auxin symmetry is restored to prevent overbending. Here, we present initial insights into cellular and molecular mechanisms that lead to the termination of the tropic response. We identified an auxin feedback on PIN3 polarization as underlying mechanism that restores symmetry of the PIN3-dependent auxin flow. Thus, two mechanistically distinct PIN3 polarization events redirect auxin fluxes at different time points of the gravity response: first, gravity-mediated redirection of PIN3-mediated auxin flow toward the lower hypocotyl side, where auxin gradually accumulates and promotes growth, and later PIN3 polarization to the opposite cell side, depleting this auxin maximum to end the bending. Accordingly, genetic or pharmacological interference with the late PIN3 polarization prevents termination of the response and leads to hypocotyl overbending. This observation reveals a role of auxin feedback on PIN polarity in the termination of the tropic response. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd

Subcellular trafficking and cell polarity are basic cellular processes crucial for plant development including tropisms - directional growth responses to environmental stimuli such as light or gravity. Tropisms involve auxin gradient across the stimulated organ that underlies the differential cell elongation and bending. The perception of light or gravity is followed by changes in the polar, cellular distribution of the PIN auxin transporters. Such re-specification of polar trafficking pathways is a part of the mechanism, by which plants adjust their phenotype to environmental changes. Recent genetic and biochemical studies provided the important insights into mechanisms of PIN polarization during tropisms. In this review, we summarize the present state of knowledge on dynamic PIN repolarization and its specific regulations during hypocotyl tropisms.

The prominent and evolutionarily ancient role of the plant hormone auxin is the regulation of cell expansion. Cell expansion requires ordered arrangement of the cytoskeleton but molecular mechanisms underlying its regulation by signalling molecules including auxin are unknown. Here we show in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana that in elongating cells exogenous application of auxin or redistribution of endogenous auxin induces very rapid microtubule re-orientation from transverse to longitudinal, coherent with the inhibition of cell expansion. This fast auxin effect requires auxin binding protein 1 (ABP1) and involves a contribution of downstream signalling components such as ROP6 GTPase, ROP-interactive protein RIC1 and the microtubule-severing protein katanin. These components are required for rapid auxin- and ABP1-mediated re-orientation of microtubules to regulate cell elongation in roots and dark-grown hypocotyls as well as asymmetric growth during gravitropic responses.

PIN-FORMED (PIN) proteins localize asymmetrically at the plasma membrane and mediate intercellular polar transport of the plant hormone auxin that is crucial for a multitude of developmental processes in plants. PIN localization is under extensive control by environmental or developmental cues, but mechanisms regulating PIN localization are not fully understood. Here we show that early endosomal components ARF GEF BEN1 and newly identified Sec1/Munc18 family protein BEN2 are involved in distinct steps of early endosomal trafficking. BEN1 and BEN2 are collectively required for polar PIN localization, for their dynamic repolarization, and consequently for auxin activity gradient formation and auxin-related developmental processes including embryonic patterning, organogenesis, and vasculature venation patterning. These results show that early endosomal trafficking is crucial for cell polarity and auxin-dependent regulation of plant architecture., Author Summary Auxin is a unique plant hormone, which is actively and directionally transported in plant tissues. Transported auxin locally accumulates in the plant body and triggers a multitude of responses, including organ formation and patterning. Therefore, regulation of the directional auxin transport is very important in multiple aspects of plant development. The PIN-FORMED (PIN) family of auxin transporters is known to localize at specific sides of cells and export auxin from the cells, enabling the directional transport of auxin in the tissues. PIN proteins are rapidly shuttling between the plasma membrane and intracellular compartments, potentially allowing dynamic changes of the asymmetric localization according to developmental and environmental cues. Here, we discovered that a mutation in the Sec1/Munc18 family protein VPS45 abolishes its own early endosomal localization and compromises intracellular trafficking of PIN proteins. By genetic and pharmacological inhibition of early endosomal trafficking, we also revealed that another early endosomal protein, ARF GEF BEN1, is involved in early endosomal trafficking at a distinct step. Furthermore, we showed that these components play crucial roles in polar localization and dynamic repolarization of PIN proteins, which underpin various developmental processes. These findings highlight the indispensable roles of early endosomal components in regulating PIN polarity and plant architecture.