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Accidental introduction of nonindigenous aquatic species (NIAS) is usually mediated by shipping through ballast water. Ballast water management plans are being developed and implemented around the world to prevent the spread of NIAS. However, for marine environmental management, incorporating stakeholders’ perceptions into designing and formulating management plans is key to achieving successful implementation. This study used qualitative interviews and grounded theory to induce the influencing factors and conceptual model of stakeholders’ perceptions on ballast water management (BWM) issues. The interplay of the pressure–state–response conceptual model based on grounded theory was established to elaborate on stakeholders’ perceptions. The study results indicated that local ballast water management required comprehensive port state control (PSC) and technical competency development. Second, an international commercial port can be used as a demonstration area to demonstrate the effectiveness and the potential benefits of BWM implementation due to its potential to link with international networks. Moreover, legislation, surveying/monitoring, institutional capacity and outreach/education are the four fundamentals to marine bio-invasion management. Initiating ballast water management measures as part of port environmental management aims to enhance marine pollution management capacity, especially in the field of marine bio-invasion management.

The restoration of the coastal environment can help to alleviate declining offshore fishery resources. When artificial fish reefs utilizing steelmaking slag are deployed on the seabed, they can improve algal growth to create habitats for fisheries enhancement. However, the use of slag reefs in the marine environment in Taiwan may draw public concerns about the compatibility of placing steel by-products in the marine environment and food safety issues. It is therefore likely that the further use of slag reefs for marine productivity enhancement (MPE) may encounter resistance and face uncertainty. In this study, controversial issues related to the application of slag reefs to the development of subsequent marine ranching were explored. Qualitative interviews with stakeholders were conducted, and their support or opposition for the application of steelmaking slag to the marine environment were discussed. The results of the interviews were analyzed based on grounded theory to establish conceptual models and clarify stakeholders’ policy opinions on the marine application of slag reefs. The results can inform policy for the further utilization and management of slag reefs, and may help the government to promote the circular economy and achieve its ultimate goal of sustainable ocean development.

The introduction of non-indigenous aquatic species (NIASs) was identified as one of the major threats to aquatic ecosystems. Shipping is one of the potential invasive pathways for the introduction of marine NIASs, mainly via ballast water, sediments, and ship fouling. In addition, The International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments (BWM Convention) aims to mitigate the introduction risk of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens (HAOPs) via ships’ ballast water and sediment. Some of these species can be very harmful and cause loss of biodiversity, adverse environmental consequences, and economic and social impacts. In this study, an empirical model based on the environmental similarity and the vessel characteristics was used to assess the risk associated with the ballast water, for the incoming vessels to the port of Kaohsiung and port of Riga. The priority for port state control (PSC) inspection was established and recommended for better ballast water management.

The Ballast Water Management Convention (BWMC) entered into force in September 2017. It made provisions for the utilization of risk assessments to determine the impact of Harmful Aquatic Organisms and Pathogens (HAOP). In this study, we proposed a comprehensive framework for evaluating an incoming vessel's risk level of introducing HAOP via ballast water by employing the Delphi method and an analytic hierarchy process (AHP) -based decision analysis process. Questionnaires were distributed to 21 marine experts in northern Europe and Taiwan to collect their opinions on 15 risk factors. The framework was then modified according to the experts' feedback. Ten risk factors were selected under two categories: 1) source of ballast water and 2) vessel characteristics. The derived framework could serve as a decision-making tool to assist port states in identifying potential high risk vessels on their borders, and thus enhance the effective implementation and enforcement of the BWMC.

Maritime transportation is a key means for Taiwan to transport the cargo in the global trade. Global warming has led to two new navigation channels for arctic passages, the Northeast Passage and Northwest Passage. Research has increasingly addressed the unknown economic costs of these passages, and the increase of navigational activity in the Arctic Ocean has also resulted in CO2 emissions. Taiwan has one of the leading merchant fleets in the world; however, study on this aspect in Taiwan is not available. We use Port of Taipei, Taiwan as the starting place to compare the two arctic shipping routes and developed a model to determine the shipping costs and as well the CO2 emission. The results showed that a voyage from the Port of Taipei to the Port of Rotterdam through the Northeast Passage would be 2107 nautical miles shorter than voyage along the current sea route to Europe but 2% to 3% costlier; CO2 emissions would be 3% lower. Sailing to New York Harbor through the Northwest Passage would shorten voyages by 2459 nautical miles and reduce both costs and CO2 emissions by 7%. Therefore, if tolls were lowered or sailing speeds increased, sailing through the Arctic Passages could be a great opportunity for shipping industries and enable Taiwan to develop its shipping economy while protecting the marine environment.

Rapid assessment sampling for target species is a fast cost-effective method aimed at determining the presence, abundance and distribution of alien and native harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens that may have been introduced by shipping. In this study, the method was applied within a large tropical port expected to have a high species diversity. The port of Kaohsiung was sampled for bivalve molluscan species that attach using a byssus. Such species, due to their biological traits, are spread by ships to ports worldwide. We estimated the abundance and distribution range of one dreissenid (Mytilopsis sallei) and four mytilids (Brachidontes variabilis, Arcuatula senhousa, Mytilus galloprovincialis, Perna viridis) known to be successful invaders and identified as potential pests, or high-risk harmful native or non-native species. We conclude that a rapid assessment of their abundance and distribution within a port, and its vicinity, is efficient and can provide sufficient information for decision making by port managers where IMO port exemptions may be sought.

The Chinese white dolphin is one of the marine mammals that can be frequently sighted in the coastal waters of western Taiwan. The subpopulation of this species in Taiwan is categorized as critically endangered in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Thus, the designation of its habitat as a marine protected area (MPA) should be conducted to protect it from extinction. However, the proposed MPA covers the coastal waters of several counties, where it also overlaps with fishing grounds and a proposed offshore reclamation island for an industrial park. The designation will affect the original marine use and presents a major conflict among multiple stakeholders. This study is a qualitative study that employs semi-structured interviews with stakeholders from competing interests, including local fisheries, industrial developers, the government, academia, and the conservation sector, in order to explore their perspectives and responses regarding the designation of an MPA and the causes of the conflicts among stakeholders. The results showed that the rationale for opposing the establishment of the MPA is the insufficient amount of scientific information and statistical data for determining the appropriate site and size of the MPA. This also makes it difficult to implement any corresponding mitigation measures. With regard to fisheries, the center of the conflict is that the Chinese white dolphin competes for the same fishery resources with fishermen. Compensation for the loss of fishery resources seems costly. Results from this study will help to inform the design of the MPA for the conservation of Chinese white dolphin in Taiwan and to minimize the conflicts between different stakeholders.

Marine debris is a pollution problem on a global scale, which causes harm to marine ecosystems and consequently results in profoundly negative influences on mankind. This type of pollution can originate from various activities such as leisure and tourism, fishery, land-based sources, and vessels, etc. In this study, it was found that derelict fishing gear (DFG) produced by oyster farming activities is being dispersed along the southwestern coast of Taiwan, consequently reducing the leisure quality and coastal amenities. In order to understand the current problem of DFG, related stakeholders were invited to undergo qualitative interviews to observe the stakeholders’ perceptions pertaining to DFG pollution and their opinions on subsequent mitigation measures. The results of the interviews were then used to explore management issues pertaining to DFG, as well as the trans-boundary pollution problems caused by DFG based on the theory of environmental resource governance and scales of management jurisdiction. Finally, suggestions were provided to effectively reduce the DFG pollution from oyster farming, including the strengthening of environmental education and propagation, sustaining management and monitoring of marine debris by the government, using policy tools, and applying solid waste management principles.

The Ballast Water Management Convention (BWMC) entered into force in September 2017. Most countries have enacted relevant national laws and regulations to mitigate the hazards of ballast water-mediated introductions of non-indigenous aquatic species (NIS). Taiwan's critical location as an important transportation hub in the Western Pacific Ocean makes it a hot spot for such invasions. For the past few years, policy dialogue between government and the shipping sector has been actively continuously conducted in order to form a consensus for devising strategies for the management of ballast water. In this study, information on policy debates among multiple stakeholders for three consecutive years and vessel traffic information were utilized to explore policy options for ballast water management. This article provides several recommendations for the implementation of the Convention in the early stages, including a three-tiered port state control (PSC) system, designation of an alternative ballast water exchange zone, and possibility of exemption.

It is widely documented that marine debris is detrimental to the marine ecological environment. While there are various sources of marine debris, that generated by ships constitutes a significant proportion. Annex V of MARPOL 73/78 is to regulate the discharge of garbage from ships; in particular, it prohibits all kinds of plastics from being discharged into ocean. However, most fishing vessels are virtually exempt from such regulations due to their low gross tonnage, below 400 t. Given the great number of fishing vessels operating around the world, it can be argued that fishing vessels are a common source of marine debris. This paper aims to propose measures that will fill the gap in international regulations in addressing the problem of vessel-source garbage pollution. An understanding of what constitutes the underlying causes leading to fishers' decision on debris disposal is needed when designing effective measures to reduce garbage pollution from ships. Thus, this paper seeks to identify factors that have the potential to influence fishers' disposal behavior and investigate the association between factors and fishers' intention of bringing garbage back to port. Major factors of a well-developed recycling practice, adequate collection facilities placed at port, fishers' positive views towards marine environments and provision of rewards are identified, which have significant implications for management strategies. Finally, the papers offers suggestions regarding future efforts focusing on debris reduction strategies to further address the problem of garbage pollution from fishing vessels.

Marine debris is a ubiquitous problem that poses a serious threat to the global oceans; it has motivated public participation in clean-up campaigns, as well as governmental involvement in developing mitigation strategies. While it is known that the problem of marine litter may be affected by waste management practices on land, beach survey results have seldom been compared with them. In this study, marine litter surveys on four beaches of Cijin Island were conducted to explore the effects of waste management and policy implications. Indirect evidence shows that chances for land-based litter, such as plastic bags and bottles, entering the marine environment can be greatly decreased if they can be properly reduced, reused and recycled. We suggest that mitigation measures should focus on source reduction, waste recycling and management, utilizing effective economic instruments, and pursuing a long-term public education campaign to raise the public awareness of this problem.

Deep ocean water (DOW) is commonly referred to as the water below photic zone in the ocean that is typically cold, clean, stable, and rich in nutrients. Japan and the United States have been exploiting the DOW for utilization in water, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and fishery industries for many years. Since 2000, Taiwan has started the preliminary planning for the exploitation of DOW, including site evaluation, water quality investigation, and bathymetric survey of the potential DOW development sites. The seabed bathymetry in eastern Taiwan has a natural advantage, where the water depth can reach 500 m just several kilometers offshore, making it a rather unique place on earth that can exploit DOW economically. This paper reviews the current status for the development of DOW in Taiwan, from actual site investigations conducted and documents analysis. Recommendations for the future efforts of this fledging industry are also given.

Due to the rapid population growth, anthropogenic activities result in agricultural, industrial, and urban diffuse runoffs that elevate the level of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus in coastal waters. Currently there is no integrated analysis for coastal eutrophication in Taiwan. A comprehensive analysis of the coastal eutrophic status was performed in this study based on decade-long coastal water quality monitoring data from Taiwan's Environmental Protection Administration. A 3-tiered monitoring strategy is recommended based on the severity of the current eutrophication state. Results indicate that the most problematic area of coastal eutrophication is located in the estuary of the Donggang River (DGR) and its adjacent coastal waters, i.e., the Kao-Ping mouth (KPM) and Dapeng Bay (DPB) in south-western Taiwan. With a worsening eutrophic status, these areas demand intensive monitoring and research with higher spatial and temporal resolutions to evaluate the stresses of nutrient forcing and predict possible future responses.

Data on shipping traffic in one of the busiest seaports in the world, the Port of Kaohsiung, were analyzed to evaluate the implications for ballast water management. Results show that 67% of the arriving vessels were registered to a flag of convenience, which typically have a lower degree of environmental records. The top five donor countries historically suffer from harmful algal bloom problems. The short journey and busy trading between these countries and Taiwan lead to a higher risk of inoculation. In addition, only 1.4% of all vessels visited more than once every year during the 9-year span, indicating that the port authority encounters many new vessels each year. These findings could influence the design and application of ballast water management strategies as well as highlight the challenges in their implementation. We suggest that an analysis of vessel traffic patterns should be coupled with other useful vessel information to make risk assessment successful.