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Treadmill exercise and mesenchymal stem cell transplantation are both practical and effective methods for the treatment of cerebral ischemia. However, whether there is a synergistic effect between the two remains unclear. In this study, we established rat models of ischemia/reperfusion injury by occlusion of the middle cerebral artery for 2 hours and reperfusion for 24 hours. Rat models were perfused with bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC-exos) via the tail vein and underwent 14 successive days of treadmill exercise. Neurological assessment, histopathology, and immunohistochemistry results revealed decreased neuronal apoptosis and cerebral infarct volume, evident synaptic formation and axonal regeneration, and remarkably recovered neurological function in rats subjected to treadmill exercise and MSC-exos treatment. These effects were superior to those in rats subjected to treadmill exercise or MSC-exos treatment alone. Mechanistically, further investigation revealed that the activation of JNK1/c-Jun signaling pathways regulated neuronal apoptosis and synaptic-axonal remodeling. These findings suggest that treadmill exercise may exhibit a synergistic effect with MSC-exos treatment, which may be related to activation of the JNK1/c-Jun signaling pathway. This study provides novel theoretical evidence for the clinical application of treadmill exercise combined with MSC-exos treatment for ischemic cerebrovascular disease.