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The high-affinity metal-binding site of isolated F(1)-ATPase from beef heart mitochondria was studied by high-field (HF) continuous wave electron paramagnetic resonance (CW-EPR) and pulsed EPR spectroscopy, using Mn(II) as a paramagnetic probe. The protein F(1) was fully depleted of endogenous Mg(II) and nucleotides [stripped F(1) or MF1(0,0)] and loaded with stoichiometric Mn(II) and stoichiometric or excess amounts of ADP or adenosine 5'-(beta,gamma-imido)-triphosphate (AMPPNP). Mn(II) and nucleotides were added to MF1(0,0) either subsequently or together as preformed complexes. Metal-ADP inhibition kinetics analysis was performed showing that in all samples Mn(II) enters one catalytic site on a beta subunit. From the HF-EPR spectra, the zero-field splitting (ZFS) parameters of the various samples were obtained, showing that different metal-protein coordination symmetry is induced depending on the metal nucleotide addition order and the protein/metal/nucleotide molar ratios. The electron spin-echo envelope modulation (ESEEM) technique was used to obtain information on the interaction between Mn(II) and the (31)P nuclei of the metal-coordinated nucleotide. In the case of samples containing ADP, the measured (31)P hyperfine couplings clearly indicated coordination changes related to the metal nucleotide addition order and the protein/metal/nucleotide ratios. On the contrary, the samples with AMPPNP showed very similar ESEEM patterns, despite the remarkable differences present among their HF-EPR spectra. This fact has been attributed to changes in the metal-site coordination symmetry because of ligands not involving phosphate groups. The kinetic data showed that the divalent metal always induces in the catalytic site the high-affinity conformation, while EPR experiments in frozen solutions supported the occurrence of different precatalytic states when the metal and ADP are added to the protein sequentially or together as a preformed complex. The different states evolve to the same conformation, the metal(II)-ADP inhibited form, upon induction of the trisite catalytic activity. All our spectroscopic and kinetic data point to the active role of the divalent cation in creating a competent catalytic site upon binding to MF1, in accordance with previous evidence obtained for Escherichia coli and chloroplast F(1).

Mitochondria are central to heart function and dysfunction, and the pathways activated by different cardioprotective interventions mostly converge on mitochondria. In a context of perspectives in innate and acquired cardioprotection, we review some recent advances in F(0)F(1)ATPsynthase structure/function and regulation in cardiac cells. We focus on three topics regarding the mitochondrial F(0)F(1)ATPsynthase and the plasma membrane enzyme, i.e.: i) the crucial role of cardiac mitochondrial F(0)F(1)ATPsynthase regulation by the inhibitory protein IF(1) in heart preconditioning strategies; ii) the structure and function of mitochondrial F(0)F(1)ATPsynthase oligomers in mammalian myocardium as possible endogenous factors of mitochondria resistance to ischemic insult; iii) the external location and characterization of plasma membrane F(0)F(1) ATP synthase in search for possible actors of its regulation, such as IF(1) and calmodulin, at cell surface.

The catalytic sites of beef heart mitochondrial F1-ATPase were studied by electron spin echo envelope modulation (ESEEM) spectroscopy, using Mn(II) as a paramagnetic probe, which replaces the naturally occurring Mg(II), maintaining the enzyme catalytic activity. F1-ATPase was purified from beef heart mitochondria. A protein still containing three endogenous nucleotides, named MF1(1,2), is obtained under milder conditions, whereas a harsher treatment gives a fully depleted F1, named MF1(0,0). Several samples were prepared, loading MF1(0,0) or MF1(1,2) with Mn(II) or MnIIADP in both substoichiometric and excess amounts. When MF1(1,2) is loaded with Mn(II) in a 1:0.8 ratio, the FT-ESEEM spectrum shows evidence of a nitrogen interacting with the metal, while this interaction is not present in MF1(0,0) + Mn(II) in a 1:0.8 ratio. However, when MF1(0,0) is loaded with 2.4 Mn(II), the FT-ESEEM spectrum shows a metal-nitrogen interaction resembling that present in MF1(1,2) + Mn(II) in a 1:0.8 ratio. These results strongly support the role of the metal alone in shaping and structuring the catalytic sites of the enzyme. When substoichiometric ADP is added to MF1(1,2) preloaded with 0.8 equiv of Mn(II), the ESEEM spectra show evidence of a phosphorus nucleus coupled to the metal, indicating that the nucleotide phosphate binding to Mn(II) occurs in a catalytic site. Generally, 14N coordination to the metal is clearly identified in the ESEEM spectra of all the samples containing more than one metal equivalent. One point of note is that the relevant nitrogen-containing ligand(s), responsible for the signals in the ESEEM spectra, has not yet been identified in the available X-ray structures.

The natural inhibitor proteins IF1 regulate mitochondrial F0F1ATPsynthase in a wide range of species. We characterized the interaction of CaM with purified bovine IF1, two bovine IF1 synthetic peptides, as well as two homologous proteins from yeast, namely IF1 and STF1. Fluorometric analyses showed that bovine and yeast inhibitors bind CaM with a 1:1 stoichiometry in the pH range between 5 and 8 and that CaM-IF1 interaction is Ca2+-dependent. Bovine and yeast IF1 have intermediate binding affinity for CaM, while the K d (dissociation constant) of the STF1-CaM interaction is slightly higher. Binding studies of CaM with bovine IF1 synthetic peptides allowed us to identify bovine IF1 sequence 33–42 as the putative CaM-binding region. Sequence alignment revealed that this region contains a hydrophobic motif for CaM binding, highly conserved in both yeast IF1 and STF1 sequences. In addition, the same region in bovine IF1 has an IQ motif for CaM binding, conserved as an IQ-like motif in yeast IF1 but not in STF1. Based on the pH and Ca2+ dependence of IF1 interaction with CaM, we suggest that the complex can be formed outside mitochondria, where CaM could regulate IF1 trafficking or additional IF1 roles not yet clarified.

Diazoxide, a selective opener of the mitochondrial ATP-sensitive K+ channel (mitoK(ATP)), has been reported to enhance F(0)F(1)ATPsynthase inhibition during ischemia, but the underlying mechanisms are still unclear. Here, we demonstrate that diazoxide directly interacts with the F(1) sector of beef heart F(0)F(1)ATPsynthase markedly promoting the binding of the inhibitor protein (IF(1)) to beta subunit. More specifically, the treatment of soluble F(1) with one equivalent of diazoxide was sufficient to decrease the K(d) of IF(1)-F(1) complex at low pH. Such effect was revealed only on the cycling enzyme, while no effect was observed in the absence of Mg-ATP. However, diazoxide binding occurred independently from the catalysis, as shown by the structural changes induced by the drug in not catalytically active F(1) and revealed by CD spectra. In addition, kinetic analysis of ATP hydrolysis demonstrated that diazoxide exerts a stabilising role on Mg-ADP bound in the catalytic site of the beta subunit adopting the tight conformation (beta(DP)). In accordance, a stabilising effect of Mg-ADP at the nucleotide binding domain (NBD) has been reported also for K(ATP) channel. These results suggest that diazoxide binds to beta subunit at NBD, which is highly conserved in the ATP-binding cassette protein family, thus inducing nucleotide stabilisation and favouring F(1) conformation suitable for IF(1) binding. Finally, diazoxide also increased IF(1) binding to membrane bound F(1), while it did not influence the energisation-dependent IF(1) release. As IF(1) binding mediates the F(0)F(1)ATPsynthase inhibition, we suggest that such mechanism may contribute to cardioprotection during ischemia.

Upon separation of a crude preparation of beta subunit ("beta fraction") from mitochondrial F(1)-ATPase containing one equivalent of Fe(III) in the nucleotide-independent site (1Fe(III)-loaded MF(1)), Fe(III) is almost completely recovered. CD spectra show that "beta fraction" maintains the structural changes induced by Fe(III) in the whole enzyme. In accordance, EPR reveals that the Fe(III) site geometry is conserved in "beta fraction." Moreover, the EPR spectra of 1Fe(III)-loaded MF(1) and its "beta fraction" undergo similar changes of the line-shape upon Pi binding at the catalytic site, indicating that the Pi and Fe(III) are proximal on beta. Highly purified beta in nucleotide-free form binds 1mol of Fe(III)/mol of protein. MF(1) "freezed" by inhibitors with two beta in closed conformation and one beta in open or half-closed conformation binds 1mol of Fe(III)/mol of enzyme. Therefore, the Fe(III) site location in the unique beta subunit not adopting the closed conformation is proposed.

FT-IR analysis shows that treatment of F1ATPase with the inhibitors DCCD and Nbf-Cl, in the presence of saturating concentrations of ADP and AMP-PNP and in the absence of Mg2+, does not modify the secondary structure of the enzyme, but significantly modifies its compactness and thermal stability, although to different extents. Nbf-Cl causes a significant increase in stabilisation, in addition to that induced by nucleotides, while DCCD is less effective in this regard. Determination by HPLC of the exchange rate, in the absence of Mg2+, of tightly bound nucleotides of F1ATPase treated with the two inhibitors shows that DCCD does not significantly affect the exchange rate of ADP with AMP-PNP and vice versa in catalytic and non-catalytic tight sites, while Nbf-Cl selectively reduces the enzyme's capacity to exchange ADP bound in the tight catalytic site. It is suggested that the effects of DCCD, unlike those of Nbf-Cl, are closely related to the presence or absence of Mg2+.