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The increasing demand for slipper oyster ( Crassostrea iredalei ) has propelled farmers to expand oyster cultivation areas in the Philippines, chiefly for local consumption and feasibly for export overseas. Being filter feeders, oysters can accumulate pathogens from their surrounding waters, which can cause foodborne diseases once consumed. Monitoring oyster farming areas for microbiological quality and levels of heavy metals is therefore crucial. In the current study, the microbiological quality of oysters and culture waters of the major oyster farming areas in Cogon and Palina rivers and Cabugao bay, located in Roxas City and municipality of Ivisan, Capiz Province, Western Visayas, Philippines, respectively, were examined monthly during the wet (May to October) and dry (November to April) seasons over a period of 12 months. Regardless of the sampling period, high levels of fecal coliforms in the water and Escherichia coli in oysters were noted, clearly illustrating that these oyster growing areas would comply with the lower Class B standard and 'Prohibited' areas under the European Union and United States classification systems, respectively. Moreover, while Salmonella was erratically detected in oysters, V. cholerae and V. parahaemolyticus count were not detected and within acceptable limit, respectively. The levels of heavy metals in oyster's meat were also determined twice, i.e. during the wet (July) and dry (March) seasons. Zn and Cu were the most abundant metals detected while the levels of Pb, Cd, Hg, and Cr were below the regulatory limits set by the European Union and United States Food and Drug Administration, respectively. Taken together, these oyster culture areas studied should be urgently rehabilitated to improve oysters' poor microbiological quality. Additionally, depuration or relaying of oysters harvested from these sites is imperative to ensure quality and safety.

Changes in innate immunity parameters and epinecidin mRNA transcript levels were examined to characterize the non-specific immune response of E. coioides to pathogenic V. harveyi JML1 isolated from affected cage-cultured fish. After fish had been injected with bacteria at a dose causing 30% mortality, blood and tissue samples were collected at 0, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72, 96, 120, and 240 h post-infection (hpi) for assessment of indices such as the oxidative burst (OB) and phagocytic index (PI) of head kidney cells, and lysozyme activity (LYS) and total immunoglobulin (Total Ig) levels of the plasma. The epinecidin mRNA transcript levels (EGE) from skin, gills, liver, kidney, and spleen tissues were also determined by gel-based RT-PCR. Lastly, daily mortality (DM), liver total bacterial load (TBC), and presumptive Vibrio count (TVC) were monitored up to 240 hpi. The results revealed that bacteria proliferated rapidly in fish tissue, reaching peak densities at 24 hpi for both TBC and TVC but was on a downward trend thereafter. The pattern in fish mortality closely correlated with TBC and TVC. Total Ig, OB, and PI in E. coioides were suppressed in the early part of infection when V. harveyi load was high but recovered and later increased as bacterial density declined. LYS and EGE were consistently high and their activities were not hampered by bacterial infection. The study demonstrated that V. harveyi JML1 interacts with E. coioides by transiently inhibiting some immune parameters resulting in mortalities. However, consistently high LYS, upregulated EGE, and resurgent PI, OB and Total Ig conferred resistance and subsequent recovery in the fish. The study provides new insights on the interaction between E. coioides and V. harveyi JML1 that can aid in formulating health management strategies for groupers. Further studies on prophylactic interventions to enhance the innate immune response in grouper during infection with V. harveyi JML1 are suggested.

Outbreaks of viral nervous necrosis (VNN) in Asian sea bass (Lates calcarifer) at the larval stages via vertical transmission of nervous necrosis virus (NNV) from asymptomatic broodfish remain as a major deterrent during seed production. A five-year study was conducted to produce NNV-specific-free sea bass broodfish reared in land-based tanks through an annual immunization regimen with the formalin-inactivated NNV. We primarily immunized (intraperitoneal injection) sea bass juveniles (5 g) and monitored the neutralizing antibody (Nab) titers in the sera of these fish at scheduled intervals post-immunization. Nab titers in the sera of immunized fish peaked at Month 2 (titer: 1:4480 ± 1185) but thereafter gradually declined and significantly dropped (1:260 ± 83) at Month 12 post-primary immunization. Booster immunization of these fish at Month 12 post-immunization led to abrupt increases in Nab titers in booster immunized (B-Im) fish at Month 1 (1:12800 ± 6704) but thereafter declined and dropped at Month 12 (1:480 ± 165) post-booster immunization. The annual booster injections with the inactivated vaccine or L-15 (Unimmunized [U-Im]) were consecutively conducted for 4 years until the fish became sexually mature. Mature fish from both groups were successively induced to spawn twice (1-month interval) via intramuscular injection with luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone analogue (LHRH-a; 100 µg/kg BW). NNV was not detected by RT-PCR in oocytes and milts, and spawned eggs of B-Im fish. In contrast, oocytes and milts, and spawned eggs of U-Im fish were NNV positive. Spawned eggs of B-Im broodfish exhibited Nab titers ranging from 1:192 ± 34 to 1:240 while such was not detected (

The resistance of Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus Temminck et Schlegel) against a viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus (VHSV) challenge induced by a preceding non-lethal aquabirnavirus (ABV) challenge was investigated through experimental dual-infections with different intervals between the two challenges. The non-specific protection conferred by the primary ABV infection against the secondary VHSV infection commenced at Day 3 and persisted up to Day 14 but vanished at Day 21 post-ABV challenge. The in vitro assay using HINAE (hirame natural embryo) cells demonstrated anti-VHSV activity in the serum of ABV-challenged flounder from Day 1 to Day 14 but not at Day 21 post-ABV challenge. A high expression of a Mx gene, a molecular marker of type I interferon(s) (IFN) occurred in the head kidneys of ABV-challenged flounder from Day 1 to Day 7. These results suggest that the non-specific protection against the secondary VHSV infection in flounder was due to IFN(s) induced by the primary ABV infection.

Viral nervous necrosis (VNN) caused by betanodaviruses has been recently implicated in serious mortalities of groupers in the grow-out culture system. A safe and effective vaccine against this disease is urgently needed. This study demonstrates that a single intramuscular vaccination with formalin-inactivated Philippine strain of piscine betanodavirus (genotype: redspotted grouper nervous necrosis virus; RGNNV) induces potent immune responses and substantial protective immunity against an intramuscular challenge with the homologous virus in brown-marbled grouper, Epinephelus fuscogutattus, a highly susceptible marine fish species to VNN. Seroneutralization assay conducted on sera of vaccinated fish revealed the occurrence of substantial neutralizing-antibody titers from Days 15 (mean titer 1:800) to 190 (1:400) with the highest titer observed at Day 60 post-vaccination (1:5120). When vaccinated fish were challenged with the homologous virus at Days 15, 30 and 75 post-vaccination, significantly higher survival rates were obtained in these fish compared with their corresponding controls (L-15 injected fish). Abrogation of virus multiplication in all vaccinated survivors was indicated by undetectable virus titers in the brains and kidneys paralleled by significantly high levels of neutralizing antibodies in the sera of these fish. Consecutively, replicates of vaccinated fish that survived betanodavirus challenge at Days 15 and 75 post-vaccination were maintained in flow-through aquaria and rechallenged with the homologous virus 3 and 5 months later, respectively. A significant drop in neutralizing-antibody titers of 3 and 8 folds, respectively, were observed in the sera of Days 15 and 75 post-vaccinated fish assayed before the virus rechallenge. Interestingly, reversion in the levels of neutralizing antibodies to significantly high levels (8-15 folds) were noted in these fish after the virus rechallenge. Taken together, our current data clearly demonstrate that a single administration of the inactivated Philippine strain of betanodavirus vaccine can effectively mount a specific anamnestic response and concomitant long-term protection against VNN in grouper at the grow-out culture system.

Asian sea bass, Lates calcarifer (Bloch), exhibited strong immune responses against a single injection of the formalin-inactivated red-spotted grouper nervous necrosis virus (RGNNV), a betanodavirus originally isolated in Japan. Fish produced neutralizing antibodies at high titre levels from days 10 (mean titre 1:480) to 116 (1:1280), with the highest titre at day 60 post-vaccination (1:4480). When fish were challenged with the homologous RGNNV at day 54 post-vaccination, there were no mortalities in both the vaccinated and unvaccinated control fish. However, a rapid clearance of the virus was observed in the brains and kidneys of vaccinated fish, followed by a significant increase in neutralizing-antibody titres. Furthermore, the vaccine-induced antibodies potently neutralized Philippine betanodavirus isolates (RGNNV) in a cross-neutralization assay. The present results indicate the potential of the formalin-inactivated RGNNV vaccine against viral nervous necrosis (VNN) of Asian seabass.