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One hundred years ago (January 5th, 1901), an article in the Veterinary Record declared: The use of chloroform by practitioners is now common, and the amount of pain and suffering prevented is enormous. By its aid we are enabled to perform operations with success which without it were seldom satisfactory. A century later, in an age of sophisticated veterinary medicine, those words seem quaint, a relic of a bygone age. Our understanding of anesthesia of invertebrates in 2000 is very much at a comparable stage, however, and a great deal of research is needed to remedy this situation.

The prompt detection and effective management of infectious disease in wildlife rely greatly on field diagnosis. Although clinical work is sometimes of value, the cornerstone of diagnosis is pathological examination (gross necropsy with supporting laboratory investigations). The approach and rationale to gross post-mortem examination are common to all species, despite possible significant differences in technique. Likewise, the principles of sampling are usually comparable, with emphasis on standardisation, the correct use of equipment, and consistency in methods of storage and transportation of specimens. However, the type of sample taken and the laboratory tests required differ, depending upon the circumstances and possible diagnosis. Retention of material is always important. The principles of diagnostic pathology are discussed, with reference to selected diseases, namely: mycobacteriosis, Rift Valley fever, rabies, spongiform encephalopathies, morbillivirus and poxvirus infections, viral encephalitides, West Nile virus infection and chytridiomycosis. The importance of being able to perform certain investigations in the field, efficiently and safely, is emphasised.

Clinical and pathologic findings of avian paramyxovirus type 1 (PMV-1) in 19 houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii) imported from Pakistan into the United Arab Emirates and one captive-bred bird are reported. Clinical signs included circling, walking backward, ataxia, opisthotonos, torticollis, recumbency, head tilt, head shaking, head tremor, tucking of head under keel, nasal discharge, conjunctivitis, and diarrhea. The length of time imported birds exhibited clinical signs varied from 4 days to 18 mo after importation. Hemagglutinating antibodies against PMV-1 were detected in the sera of all 17 birds from which blood samples were collected, and PMV-1 was isolated from pooled brain, spleen, and lung tissues from two birds with acute clinical signs. There were no distinctive gross lesions at necropsy, and histologic findings were consistent with but not pathognomonic for PMV-1. All houbara bustards managed in a captive breeding and restoration program established by the National Avian Research Center have been vaccinated against PMV-1 since October 1992, and no case of PMV-1 has been reported in this collection since that time.

Research was conducted to develop a more accurate and less time-consuming method of determining expressible moisture in poultry meat. Two modifications of wrapping meat in netting (fold wrap or basket wrap) were compared to a conventional method that did not include wrapping meat. Ground, dark poultry meat, with and without 2.0% added NaCl, was wrapped in netting and analyzed for expressible moisture. The fold wrap method was determined to be more accurate and easier to use, as less expressed meat adhered to the surrounding filter papers. Thus, actual expressed moisture absorbed by filter papers was measured.

Since the passing of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, veterinary surgeons have had an increasingly important role to play in legal cases concerning wild animals, especially birds. This paper proposes guidelines for those who may be asked to investigate birds clinically, to carry out post mortem examinations or to perform laboratory tests. The importance of developing and using standard techniques is emphasised and attention is drawn to the need for more detailed research in the field of avian forensic pathology.

The polymerase chain reaction was used to amplify the staphylococcal enterotoxin B and C genes (entB and entC1) and the staphylococcal nuclease gene (nuc). Two sets of primers ("nested primers") were found to be necessary for the detection of low copy numbers of purified DNA in diluent. These allowed detection of ca. 1 fg of purified target DNA, while 100 pg was required before detection of entB, entC1, and nuc with single primer pairs was possible. With nested primers, enterotoxigenic Staphylococcus aureus cells could be detected in artificially contaminated dried skimmed milk samples at levels of ca. 10(5) CFU ml-1 within 8 h. No cross-reaction was observed between the highly homologous entB and entC1 genes. The method showed total specificity for entC1 when tested against a wide variety of other bacteria.

The anaesthetic propofol was investigated in domestic pigeons (Columba livia). The agent was administrated intravenously, in one group of birds as an adjunct to ketamine hydrochloride, and careful monitoring was performed. The dose of 14 mg kg-1 of propofol was based on allometric scaling for its use as a sole agent. Propofol anaesthesia was characterised by smooth rapid induction and good muscle relaxation but was only of short duration, ranging from two to seven minutes, and seemed to cause a marked respiratory depression. Indeed, a very narrow safety margin for propofol was observed in pigeons when ventilation was not assisted. The agent may have applications in avian anaesthesia but these are likely to be limited.

Leeches have had a long association with human beings and in recent years have proved valuable in biomedical research and surgery. Veterinary surgeons should be concerned with these creatures because of their role in causing disease, because of the part they may play in controlling the numbers of other invertebrates, because of their potential in veterinary therapy and because of the need to manage them properly in captivity.

The first aid and veterinary treatment of wild birds is outlined and attention is drawn to the legal and scientific justifications for such work. Particular emphasis is laid upon the careful examination of such cases and the importance, in subsequent treatment, of good management and nursing. Specific topics discussed include the care of young birds and the treatment of infectious and parasitic diseases, traumatic injuries, poisoning and oiling.

The role of animals in society is well recognised. The programme director of the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations has emphasised the key role of the pet and stated that ". . . within the family the animal provides opportunities for projection and displacement of feelings as well as for direct expression of con cern and care, of anxiety and fear; and for testing out capacities for power, authority and influence within the family context."' The medical contribution which may be made by pets has not, perhaps, been fully appreciated until recently. There is now, however, evidence that the pet animal may play a part in the treatment and care of some patients. Workers in the field of psychotherapy have particularly emphasised the value of pets and Corson et al2 reported encouraging results when psych iatric patients in hospital were brought into close contact with dogs. Investigations into the psychotherapeutic value of cage birds to old people' showed that the presence of budgerigars generally had a beneficial effect. The role of pets in child development was first emphasised over 70 years ago4 and has since been investigated by many workers, including Levinson,5 and this is now reflected in the widespread use of animals in schools.6 They have proved particularly valuable in teaching mentally handicapped children.8 Many social workers and occupational therapists testify to the practical benefits that may ensue from encouraging contact between children and pets, and it is no coincidence that children's wards now frequently house a pet hamster, cagebird, or goldfish. Against these points, however, are the various arguments of those who, for one reason or another, oppose close contact between man and animals. Considerable concern is justifiably expressed over zoonoses, many of which are transmissible from pets to man. In addition public criticism is often levelled against domestic animals because they smell, cause traffic accidents, foul pathways, or make too much noise. Such argu ments may influence the decisions of those who have to decide whether or not animals are kept in a hospital. Other justifiable criticisms of pets in the hospital may be levelled because of expense or because animals are both timeand space-consuming. These and other objections have to be remembered whenever the question of animals in hospitals is raised. Whether keeping such animals is desirable is debatable but I intend to draw attention to some of the problems and pitfalls of maintaining animals under such circumstances and to make basic recom mendations regarding their care. While primarily intended for guiding those working in hospitals, this paper may also prove a useful guide for those who maintain animals in penal institu tions and educational establishments. Choice of animal

The species covered in this paper are the mouse, rat, golden hamster, gerbil (jird), guinea pig and rabbit, all of which are commonly kept as pets as well as for exhibition purposes, education and research. An understanding of the biology of these small mammals is necessary if they are to be satisfactorily restrained, examined and treated. They are susceptible to a range of infectious and non-infectious diseases. Small mammals have a high metabolic rate and a large body surface area. Anaesthesia and surgery may therefore present problems of hypoglycaemia and hypothermia. Various anaesthetic agents can be used and a range of surgical procedures may be safely and successfully performed.

A case of syndactyly in a captive bred white-lipped tamarin (Saguinus nigricollis) is reported which involved the fusion of metacarpals 3 and 4 of both hands. Variations in the vertebral formula among the parents and offspring were also found.

1. Phencyclidine concn in plasma of pregnant and non-pregnant sows and in umbilical cord and neonatal plasma was determined by g.l.c. after a single intramuscular dose of phencyclidine hydrochloride. 2. The rate of elimination of the drug, as determined from plasma phencyclidine concn, was unchanged by pregnancy. 3. Phencyclidine concn in piglet plasma was approx. 10-fold higher than in maternal sow plasma and declined more slowly (t 1/2 about 6 h) than the concn. in adult sows (t 1/2 about 2 h). 4. Studies of phencyclidine uptake by piglet and sow plasma in vitro indicate that the higher concns in piglet plasma are due to a marked affinity of piglet plasma proteins for the drug, although both total protein and albumin concn is lower than in sow plasma.

Fresh droppings were collected from six species of bird of prey (Falconiformes and Strigiformes). Bacteriological examination revealed that the birds' digestive systems were colonised by bacteria found widely in other species of animals. Throughout the survey no Salmonella species were isolated.

The diets suitable for the hand rearing of piglets in incubators were examined. Diet A was based on cows' milk heated to 56 degrees C and had bacteriostatic and antiadhesive properties against Escherichia coli. Diet B was based on evaporated cows' milk and did not have these properties. The numbers of coliform bacteria naturally colonising the small intestines of newborn piglets fed entirely on these diets for one week did not differ significantly, however both were significantly higher than in control piglets suckled from birth. Faecal counts of coliforms were similar in all three groups. Examination of the bacteriostatic sensitivity of the isolated strains to sows' milk indicated a predominance of milk-sensitive strains colonising the suckled piglets and a predominance of milk-resistant strains in the piglets fed diet B. This diet-dependent colonisation could not be explained by the in vitro bacteriostatic properties of the diets alone.

The author discusses 50 bird of prey cases of 24 species submitted for clinical examination and treatment in East Africa. Traumatic injuries constituted the largest group, 31 birds being presented in this category. Other conditions encountered included those involving the feet, respiratory disease, enteritis, nervous disease and a number of birds in poor nutritional condition. The treatment of the cases is discussed.

The mean packed cell volume and haemoglobin concentration of blood samples taken from a colony of captive European kestrels were found to be 45.9 per cent and 17.3 g per cent respectively. No evidence of protozoal parasites was found in smears from 13 birds examined.

The methods available for the restraint and anaesthesia of captive primates are discussed, emphasising the differences between the techniques for primates and those for other mammals; the importance of humane methods of physical restraint is emphasised. The agents available for chemical restraint and surgical anaesthesia are considered in terms of their ease of administration, the dose rate required, speed of induction and recovery, analgesic properties, muscle relaxation and side effects. New agents are available which are potentially useful in primates.

Pigeons treated orally with 125 mg clavulanate-potentiated amoxycillin for seven days showed no adverse reactions. The drug had a marked depressive effect on the faecal flora but this had returned to normal 10 days after cessation of treatment. When administered to pigeons with an experimental Staphylococcus aureus infection of the feet no clinical response was apparent and there was no evidence of a diminution in the inflammatory process.