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The Disabled-1 (Dab1) gene encodes a key regulator of Reelin signaling. Reelin is a large glycoprotein secreted by neurons of the developing brain, particularly Cajal-Retzius cells. The DAB1 protein docks to the intracellular part of the Reelin very low density lipoprotein receptor and apoE receptor type 2 and becomes tyrosine-phosphorylated following binding of Reelin to cortical neurons. In mice, mutations of Dab1 and Reelin generate identical phenotypes. In humans, Reelin mutations are associated with brain malformations and mental retardation; mutations in DAB1 have not been identified. Here, we define the organization of Dab1, which is similar in human and mouse. The Dab1 gene spreads over 1100 kb of genomic DNA and is composed of 14 exons encoding the major protein form, some alternative internal exons, and multiple 5'-exons. Alternative polyadenylation and splicing events generate DAB1 isoforms. Several 5'-untranslated regions (UTRs) correspond to different promoters. Two 5'-UTRs (1A and 1B) are predominantly used in the developing brain. 5'-UTR 1B is composed of 10 small exons spread over 800 kb. With a genomic length of 1.1 Mbp for a coding region of 5.5 kb, Dab1 provides a rare example of genomic complexity, which will impede the identification of human mutations.

The structure and developmental expression pattern of the ankyrin repeat domain 6 (Ankrd6) gene, initially named Diversin, were studied in the mouse. Ankrd6 is transcribed as a 5.8-kb mRNA composed of 15 exons that encodes a 712 amino acid protein with 6 ankyrin repeats. Ankrd6 is expressed prominently in the developing brain from E12 to maturity, suggesting a role during brain development. In embryos, expression is maximal in ventricular zones of neuronal proliferation and intermediate zones of neuronal migration and extends to postmigratory neuronal fields during the postnatal period. In the mature brain, the Ankrd6-related signal is highest in cortical layer II, granule cells of the dentate gyrus, olfactory granules and a subset of Purkinje cells in the vestibulocerebellum. Ankrd6 is related to the Drosophila gene Diego, which interacts with Flamingo in the regulation of planar cell polarity (Feiguin et al., 2001). However, the canvas of Ankrd6 expression does not match closely that of the three mouse Flamingo homologs, Celsr1-3 (Tissir et al., 2002). These data suggest that Ankrd6 may be involved in brain development in interaction with Celsr/Flamingo but also other signaling pathways.

Expression of the genes encoding Reelin and Dab1 during cortical development in turtle, lizard, chick and mammals correlates with architectonic patterns. In all species, Reelin is secreted by marginal zone cells, whereas Dab1, which mediates the response to Reelin, is synthesized by cortical plate neurons. This pattern was presumably present in stem amniotes. In mammals, the cortical plate is radially organized and develops from inside to outside, these features depend on amplification of reelin synthesis in the marginal zone. In lizards, the cortical plate develops from outside to inside, similar to other non-mammals, but is radially organized, with an additional layer of Reelin added in the subcortex. Thus, the Reelin pathway played a key role in cortical architectonic evolution in mammalian and squamate lineages.

Regional patterning of the cerebral cortex is initiated by morphogens secreted by patterning centers that establish graded expression of transcription factors within cortical progenitors. Here, we show that Dmrt5 is expressed in cortical progenitors in a high-caudomedial to low-rostrolateral gradient. In its absence, the cortex is strongly reduced and exhibits severe abnormalities, including agenesis of the hippocampus and choroid plexus and defects in commissural and thalamocortical tracts. Loss of Dmrt5 results in decreased Wnt and Bmp in one of the major telencephalic patterning centers, the dorsomedial telencephalon, and in a reduction of Cajal-Retzius cells. Expression of the dorsal midline signaling center-dependent transcription factors is downregulated, including Emx2, which promotes caudomedial fates, while the rostral determinant Pax6, which is inhibited by midline signals, is upregulated. Consistently, Dmrt5(-/-) brains exhibit patterning defects with a dramatic reduction of the caudomedial cortex. Dmrt5 is increased upon the activation of Wnt signaling and downregulated in Gli3(xt/xt) mutants. We conclude that Dmrt5 is a novel Wnt-dependent transcription factor required for early cortical development and that it may regulate initial cortical patterning by promoting dorsal midline signaling center formation and thereby helping to establish the graded expression of the other transcription regulators of cortical identity.

The reeler mutation in the mouse maps to proximal chromosome 5 and defines a key gene involved in brain development and evolution. No gene product is known, and the locus is currently being characterized by positional cloning. YAC clones corresponding to the closest markers D5Mit61 and D5Mit72 have been isolated. Cloned extremities of the YAC inserts were used to construct a 1.1-Mb contig, a 700-kb fragment of which was shown to contain the reeler locus. The integrity of the contig was verified by physical mapping on genomic DNA. The classical allele of the reeler mutation was associated with a 150-kb deletion between D5Mit61 and D5Mit72, while no gross chromosomal anomaly was found in the Orleans allele. Candidate coding sequences were isolated to construct a preliminary transcriptional map of the reeler region. Cosmid clones mapping within the rl deletion revealed a large transcript of more than 11 kb, which was present in normal embryonic brain but barely detectable in homozygous rlOrl/rlOrl embryonic brain, suggesting strongly that it corresponds to the reeler transcript.

Using interspecific crosses between BALB/c and Mus spretus (SEG) mice, the murine reeler (rl) gene was mapped to the proximal region of chromosome 5 between the hepatocyte growth factor gene (Hgf) and the D5Mit66 microsatellite. The following order was defined: (centromere)-Cchl2a/Hgf-D5Mit1-D5Nam1/D5-Nam2 -rl/D5Mit61-D5Mit72-Xmv45-Htr5a- Peplb-D5Nam3-D5Mit66. Estimated distances between reeler and the nearest flanking markers D5Nam1 and D5Mit72 are 1.5 and 1.0 cM, respectively (95% confidence level), suggesting that the region could be physically mapped using a manageable number of YAC clones.

The Homez gene encodes a protein with three atypical homeodomains and two leucine zipper motifs of unknown function. Here we show that during neurula stages, Xenopus Homez is broadly expressed throughout the neural plate, the strongest expression being detected in the domains where primary neurons arise. At later stages, Homez is maintained throughout the central nervous system in differentiating progenitors. In accordance with this expression, Homez is positively regulated by neural inducers and by Ngnr1 and negatively by Notch signaling. Interference with Homez function in embryos by injection of an antisense morpholino oligonucleotide results in the specific disruption of the expression of late neuronal markers, without affecting the expression of earlier neuronal and early neurectodermal markers. Consistent with this finding, Homez inhibition also interferes with the expression of late neuronal markers in Ngnr1 overexpressing animal cap explants and in Notch inhibited embryos. In gain of function experiments, Homez inhibits the expression of late neuronal markers but has no effect on earlier ones. These data suggest a role for Homez in neuronal development downstream of proneural/neurogenic genes.

P2Y receptors are G-protein-coupled receptors activated by extracellular nucleotides. The P2Y(6) receptor is selectively activated by UDP, and its transcript has been detected in numerous organs, including the spleen, thymus, intestine, blood leukocytes, and aorta. To investigate the biological functions of this receptor, we generated P2Y(6)-null mice by gene targeting. The P2Y(6) knockout (KO) mice are viable and are not distinguishable from the wild-type (WT) mice in terms of growth or fertility. In thioglycollate-elicited macrophages, the production of inositol phosphate in response to UDP stimulation was lost, indicating that P2Y(6) is the unique UDP-responsive receptor expressed by mouse macrophages. Furthermore, the amount of interleukin-6 and macrophage-inflammatory protein-2, but not tumor necrosis factor-alpha, released in response to lipopolysaccharide stimulation was significantly enhanced in the presence of UDP, and this effect was lost in the P2Y(6) KO macrophages. The endothelium-dependent relaxation of the aorta by UDP was abolished in KO P2Y(6) mice. The contractile effect of UDP on the aorta, observed when endothelial nitric-oxide synthase is blocked, was also abolished in P2Y(6)-null mice. In conclusion, we generated P2Y(6)-deficient mice and have shown that these mice have a defective response to UDP in macrophages, endothelial cells, and vascular smooth muscle cells. These observations might be relevant to several physiopathological conditions such as atherosclerosis or hypertension.

Development of axonal tracts requires interactions between growth cones and the environment. Tracts such as the anterior commissure and internal capsule are defective in mice with null mutation of Celsr3 . We generated a conditional Celsr3 allele, allowing regional inactivation. Inactivation in telencephalon, ventral forebrain, or cortex demonstrated essential roles for Celsr3 in neurons that project axons to the anterior commissure and subcerebral targets, as well as in cells that guide axons through the internal capsule. When Celsr3 was inactivated in cortex, subcerebral projections failed to grow, yet corticothalamic axons developed normally, indicating that besides guidepost cells, additional Celsr3-independent cues can assist their progression. These observations provide in vivo evidence that Celsr3-mediated interactions between axons and guidepost cells govern axonal tract formation in mammals.

In the embryonic CNS, the development of axonal tracts is required for the formation of connections and is regulated by multiple genetic and microenvironmental factors. Here we show that mice with inactivation of Celsr3, an ortholog of Drosophila melanogaster flamingo (fmi; also known as starry night, stan) that encodes a seven-pass protocadherin, have marked, selective anomalies of several major axonal fascicles, implicating protocadherins in axonal development in the mammalian CNS for the first time. In flies, fmi controls planar cell polarity (PCP) in a frizzled-dependent but wingless-independent manner. The neural phenotype in Celsr3 mutant mice is similar to that caused by inactivation of Fzd3, a member of the frizzled family. Celsr3 and Fzd3 are expressed together during brain development and may act in synergy. Thus, a genetic pathway analogous to the one that controls PCP is key in the development of the axonal blueprint.

Most of the cerebral cortex derives from the cortical plate which, in all mammals, is radially organized and develops from inside to outside. Several genes involved in the organization and inside-outside development of the embryonic cortical plate in the mouse form the so-called Reelin signaling pathway. Biochemical and genetic arguments show that the extracellular matrix protein Reelin binds to two lipoprotein receptors (VLDLR and ApoER2), which relay the Reelin signal inside target neurons by docking the tyrosine kinase adapter disabled-1 (Dab1). In addition, biochemical evidence suggests that the integrins alpha 3/beta 1 and protocadherins of the CNR family may also modulate the Reelin signal. The mechanisms by which the presence of Reelin stops migration and instructs the radial organization of cortical plate cells remains unknown.

The Y chromosome gene Sry encodes a transcription factor required to initiate testis development. The related autosomal gene Sox9 is up-regulated shortly after the onset of Sry transcription and is thought essential for the differentiation of Sertoli cells. The lineage that gives rise to Sertoli cells has its origins within the coelomic epithelium (CE) of the genital ridge, but from cells also able to give rise to an interstitial cell type. It was not known at what point SRY acts in the derivation of this lineage or how the two genes interact. To investigate the identity of the cells expressing Sry, we designed two transgenes driven by the Sry promoter: one gives expression of a stable reporter, human placental alkaline phosphatase (hPLAP), while the second gives expression of a functional Myc-epitope tagged SRY protein (SRYMYC). Taking advantage of lasting hPLAP activity after transcription of the reporter gene has ceased, we could show that SryhPLAP was expressed exclusively in all cells fated to become Sertoli cells. SRYMYC-single-positive cells were first observed in the gonad and not in the CE. Subsequently, they became SRYMYC/SOX9-double-positive, but only for a few hours before turning into SOX9-single-positive cells. After the coelomic epithelial cells migrate into the gonad, there is first a decision to become interstitial or supporting cells, and then the transient expression of SRY in the latter determines their fate as Sertoli cells by up-regulating Sox9.