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Background Attractive Toxic Sugar Baits (ATSBs) successfully reduced Anopheles mosquito vector populations and malaria parasite transmission in Mali, but application methods need to be improved for wide-scale use, and effects on non-target organisms (NTOs) must be assessed. The goals of this study were to determine on a village level the effect of different outdoor configurations of ATSB bait stations to 1) achieve > 25% Anopheles mosquito vector daily feeding rate for both males and females and 2) minimize the effect on non-target organisms. Methods Dye was added to Attractive Sugar Bait Stations (ASB – without toxin) to mark mosquitoes feeding on the sugar baits, and CDC UV light traps were used to monitor mosquitoes for the presence of the dye. Yellow plates, pitfall traps, Malaise traps, UV light traps, UV tray traps, and sweep nets were used to trap and sample non-target organisms (NTOs) for dye, indicating feeding on the ASB. ASB stations were hung on outer walls of village homes to determine the impact of different densities of ASBs (1,2, or 3 per home) as well as the impact of ASB height (1 m or 1.8 m above the ground on sugar feeding by anophelines. These experiments were carried out separately, on consecutive nights for mosquito and NTO monitoring. Eight villages in the Koulikoro province were chosen as the experimental locations. Results The use of one ASB station per house marked 23.11% of female and 7.11% of male An. gambiae s.l. While two and three ASB stations per house gave feeding rates above the 25% goal, there was no statistical difference in the percentage of marked mosquitoes (p=0.3141 females; p=0.9336 males). There was no difference in sugar feeding on ASB stations when hung at 1.0 and 1.8 m and (p=0.5170 females; p=0.9934 males); however, ASBs at 1.8 m had less accidental damage from village residents and animals, and subsequent invasion of non-targets through rips or holes produced. ASB stations at 1.8 m above ground were fed on by three of seven monitored insect orders. Feeding rates were less than 0.015% of total trap catches and as low as 0.0001%. The monitored orders were: Hymenoptera [ants (Formicidae), bees (Apidae), and wasps (Vespidae)], Lepidoptera (Rhopalocera, Bombyces, Geometroidea, Noctuoidea, Sphingidae, Pyraloidea), Coleoptera (Carabidae, Tenebrionidae, Scarabaeidae, Cerambycidae, and Chrysomelidae), Diptera (Brachycera, Chironomidae), Hemiptera (Cicadomorpha and Heteroptera), Neuroptera (Myrmeleontiformia) and Orthoptera (Caelifera and Ensifera). Using one or two stations limited evidence of NTO feeding to ants (Hymenoptera), Brachycera, Heteroptera, Noctuiodea, Rhopalocera, wasps (Vespidae) and wild bees (Apidae) (both Hymenoptera) and had a significantly reduced percentage of stained individuals compared to three stations which had the highest feeding rates amongst NTOs. The percentages of stained individuals were as follows: 6.84 ± 2.03% Brachycera were stained followed by wasps (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) 5.32 ± 2.27%, and Rhopalocera 2.22 ± 1.79%. Hanging the optimal number of stations per house for catching mosquitoes (two) 1.8 m above ground, limited the groups of non-targets to Brachycera, Chironomidae, Noctuoidea, Rhopalocera, parasitic wasps and wasps (both Hymenoptera: Vespidae). The three most commonly stained non-target insect groups at this height were wasps (Vespidae) (1.65 ± 0.75%), Chironomidae (0.99 ± 0.37), and Brachycera (1.55 ± 0.69%). Feeding at this height only occurred when stations were damaged.Conclusions The goal of marking one quarter of the total Anopheles mosquito vector population per day was obtained using 2 bait stations at 1.8 m height above the ground on the outer walls of houses. This configuration of ATSB stations also had minimal effects on non-target insects: only 0.0001% to 0.013% of specimens (in three orders) were marked. Stations hung 1.8 m above the ground had less accidental damage from passing people and livestock. The minimal marking of non-target insects may be attributed to visual orientation of non-mosquito insects while mosquitoes, are mostly guided by olfactory cues. Furthermore, the bait stations have a membrane cover, which if intact, is impenetrable to most sugar feeding non-target insects but is pierced by the stylets of the mosquito proboscis. Thus, most non-target insects are not exposed to the toxin even if they approach the bait stations.

Ancylogastra Bassi & Poltavsky gen. n. is described to accommodate Cypholomia amphiaula Meyrick, 1934 (as A. amphiaula, comb. n.) and seven new species, all described and illustrated, as: A. boireaui Bassi & Sáfián sp. n., A. burundiana Bassi sp. n., A. coronata Bassi sp. n., A. endroedyi Bassi sp. n., A. gangraensis Bassi, Sáfián, Müller & †Kravchenko sp. n., A. ghanensis Bassi sp. n., and A. magnifica Bassi sp. n. Cypholomia Meyrick, 1933 is briefly discussed and C. crypsibela Meyrick, 1934 is transferred to Prionotalis Hampson, 1919 as Prionotalis crypsibela, comb. n.

Background The aim of this field trial was to evaluate the efficacy of attractive toxic sugar baits (ATSB) in Mali, where sustained malaria transmission occurs despite the use of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs). ATSB bait stations were deployed in seven of 14 similar study villages, where LLINs were already in widespread use. The combined use of ATSB and LLINs was tested to see if it would substantially reduce parasite transmission by Anopheles gambiae sensu lato beyond use of LLINs alone. Methods A 2-day field experiment was conducted to determine the number of mosquitoes feeding on natural sugar versus those feeding on bait stations containing attractive sugar bait without toxin (ASB)—but with food dye. This was done each month in seven random villages from April to December 2016. In the following year, in seven treatment villages from May to December 2017, two ATSB bait stations containing the insecticide dinotefuran were placed on the outer walls of each building. Vector population density was evaluated monthly by CDC UV light traps, malaise traps, pyrethrum spray (PSCs) and human landing catches (HLCs). Female samples of the catch were tested for age by examination of the ovarioles in dissected ovaries and identification of Plasmodium falciparum sporozoite infection by ELISA. Entomological inoculation rates (EIR) were calculated, and reductions between treated and untreated villages were determined. Results In the 2-day experiment with ASB each month, there was a lower number of male and female mosquitoes feeding on the natural sugar sources than on the ASB. ATSB deployment reduced CDC-UV trap female catches in September, when catches were highest, were by 57.4% compared to catches in control sites. Similarly, malaise trap catches showed a 44.3% reduction of females in August and PSC catches of females were reduced by 48.7% in September. Reductions of females in HLCs were lower by 19.8% indoors and 26.3% outdoors in September. The high reduction seen in the rainy season was similar for males and reductions in population density for both males and females were > 70% during the dry season. Reductions of females with ≥ 3 gonotrophic cycles were recorded every month amounting to 97.1% in October and 100.0% in December. Reductions in monthly EIRs ranged from 77.76 to 100.00% indoors and 84.95% to 100.00% outdoors. The number of sporozoite infected females from traps was reduced by 97.83% at treated villages compared to controls. Conclusions Attractive toxic sugar baits used against Anopheles mosquitoes in Mali drastically reduced the density of mosquitoes, the number of older females, the number of sporozoite infected females and the EIR demonstrating how ATSB significantly reduces malaria parasite transmission.

One hundred forty-six species of Gelechiidae including 36 new records are reported from Israel. Anarsia balioneura Meyrick, 1921 and Polyhymno chionarcha Meyrick, 1913 are recorded for the first time in the Palaearctic region. Two new species are described: Metzneria freidbergi sp. nov., and Scrobipalpa aravensis sp. nov. Six new synonyms are established: Stygmatoptera Hartig, 1936 syn. nov. of Polyhymno Chambers, 1874; Eulamprotes Bradley, 1971 syn. nov. of Oxypteryx Rebel, 1911; Polyhymno abaiella Amsel, 1974 syn. nov. of Polyhymno chionarcha, Meyrick, 1913; Gelechia haifella Amsel, 1935 syn. nov. of Athrips rancidella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854); Sophronia catharurga Meyrick, 1923 and Sophronia parahumerella Amsel, 1935 syn. nov. of Pseudosophronia exustellus (Zeller, 1847). The following new combinations are proposed: Anacampsis karmeliella (Amsel, 1935) comb. nov., Stomopteryx tesserapunctella (Amsel, 1935) comb. nov., Aproaerema languidella (Amsel, 1936) comb. nov., Aproaerema telaviviella (Amsel, 1935) comb. nov., Acompsia (Telephila) ballotellus (Amsel, 1935) comb. nov., Polyhymno dumonti (Hartig, 1936) comb. nov., Oxypteryx atrella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775) comb. nov., Oxypteryx immaculatella (Douglas, 1850) comb. nov. and Chrysoesthia amseli (Bidzilya, 2008) comb. nov. A lectotype is designated for Lita rhamnifoliae Amsel & Hering, 1931.The genitalia of both sexes of Sophronia sagittans Meyrick, 1923, Anacampsis karmeliella (Amsel, 1935), Stomopteryx tesserapunctella Amsel, 1935 as well as male genitalia of Stomopteryx lacteolella Caradja, 1924, Aproaerema telaviviella (Amsel, 1935), Acompsia ballotellus (Amsel, 1935), Polyhymno dumonti (Hartig, 1936) and Chrysoesthia amseli (Bidzilya, 2008) are illustrated and described for the first time. New or additional host plants are recorded for Metzneria aspretella Lederer, 1869, M. agraphella (Ragonot, 1895), M. ehikeella Gozmány, 1954 and Scrobipalpa suaedivorella (Chrétien, 1915). Photographs of the type specimens of most taxa described from Israel and Palestine are presented. The following species are removed from the list of Gelechiidae of Israel: Nothris sulcella Staudinger, 1879, N. skyvai Karsholt & Šumpich, 2015, Anarsia spartiella Schrank, 1802, Megacraspedus cerussatellus Rebel, 1930, Oxypteryx atrella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775), Isophrictis anthemidella (Wocke, 1871), Metzneria metzneriella (Stainton, 1851), Scrobipalpa otregata Povolný, 1972, Scrobipalpa nitentella (Fuchs, 1902), Scrobipalpa remota Povolný, 1972, Scrobipalpa salinella (Zeller, 1847) and Ephysteris diminutella (Zeller, 1847). Moreover, Stomopteryx remissella (Zeller, 1847) is recorded as new to the Altai Mountains of Russia, Anarsia balioneura Meyrick, 1921 is new to Cyprus and Libya, Polyhymno dumonti (Hartig, 1936) is new to Libya and Sudan, Scrobipalpa superstes is new to Greece, Stenolechia gemmella (Linnaeus, 1758) is new to Jordan and Polyhymno chionarcha is new to Saudi Arabia.

We tested the efficacy of attractive toxic sugar bait (ATSB) with garlic oil microencapsulated in beta-cyclodextrin as active ingredient against Aedes albopictus in suburban Haifa, Israel. Two three-acre gardens with high numbers of Ae. albopictus were selected for perimeter spray treatment with ATSB and ASB (bait containing no active ingredient). Baits were colored with food dye to verify feeding of the mosquitoes. The mosquito population was monitored by human landing catches and sweep net catches in the surrounding vegetation. Experiments lasted for 44 days. Treatment occurred on day 13. The mosquito population collapsed about 4 days after treatment and continued to drop steadily for 27 days until the end of the study. At the experimental site the average pre-treatment landing rate was 17.2 per 5 mins. Two days post-treatment, the landing rate dropped to 11.4, and continued to drop to an average of 2.6 during the following 26 days. During the same period, the control population was stable. Few sugar fed females (8–10%) approached a human bait and anthrone tests showed relatively small amounts of sugar within their crop/gut. Around 60–70 % of males caught near our human bait were sugar positive which may indicate that the males were feeding on sugar for mating related behavior. From the vegetation treated with the toxic bait, we recovered significantly fewer (about 10–14%) males and females stained by ATSB than at the ASB-treated control. This may indicate that the toxic baits alter the resting behavior of the poisoned mosquitoes within the vegetation. Almost no Ae. albopictus females (5.2 ± 1.4) approached human bait after treatment with ATSB. It therefore appears that microencapsulated garlic oil is an effective pesticide against Ae. albopictus when used in an ATSB system.

Background A neglected aspect of alien invasive plant species is their influence on mosquito vector ecology and malaria transmission. Invasive plants that are highly attractive to Anopheles mosquitoes provide them with sugar that is critical to their survival. The effect on Anopheles mosquito populations was examined through a habitat manipulation experiment that removed the flowering branches of highly attractive Prosopis juliflora from selected villages in Mali, West Africa. Methods Nine villages in the Bandiagara district of Mali were selected, six with flowering Prosopis juliflora, and three without. CDC-UV light traps were used to monitor their Anopheles spp. vector populations, and recorded their species composition, population size, age structure, and sugar feeding status. After 8 days, all of the flowering branches were removed from three villages and trap catches were analysed again. Results Villages where flowering branches of the invasive shrub Prosopis juliflora were removed experienced a threefold drop in the older more dangerous Anopheles females. Population density dropped by 69.4% and the species composition shifted from being a mix of three species of the Anopheles gambiae complex to one dominated by Anopheles coluzzii. The proportion of sugar fed females dropped from 73 to 15% and males from 77 to 10%. Conclusions This study demonstrates how an invasive plant shrub promotes the malaria parasite transmission capacity of African malaria vector mosquitoes. Proper management of invasive plants could potentially reduce mosquito populations and malaria transmission.

The efficacy of attractive toxic sugar baits (ATSB) with the active ingredient eugenol, an Environmental Protection Agency exempt compound, was evaluated against vector and nuisance mosquitoes in both laboratory and field studies. In the laboratory, eugenol combined in attractive sugar bait (ASB) solution provided high levels of mortality for Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus, and Anopheles quadrimaculatus. Field studies demonstrated significant control: >70% reduction for Aedes atlanticus, Aedes. infirmatus, and Culex nigripalpus and >50% reduction for Anopheles crucians, Uranotaenia sapphirina, Culiseta melanura, and Culex erraticus three weeks post ATSB application. Furthermore, non-target feeding of six insect orders, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, and Orthoptera, was evaluated in the field after application of a dyed-ASB to flowering and non-flowering vegetation. ASB feeding (staining) was determined by dissecting the guts and searching for food dye with a dissecting microscope. The potential impact of ATSB on non-targets, applied on green non-flowering vegetation was low for all non-target groups (0.9%). However, application of the ASB to flowering vegetation resulted in significant staining of the non-target insect orders. This highlights the need for application guidelines to reduce non-target effects. No mortality was observed in laboratory studies with predatory non-targets, spiders, praying mantis, or ground beetles, after feeding for three days on mosquitoes engorged on ATSB. Overall, our laboratory and field studies support the use of eugenol as an active ingredient for controlling important vector and nuisance mosquitoes when used as an ATSB toxin. This is the first study demonstrating effective control of anophelines in non-arid environments which suggest that even in highly competitive sugar rich environments this method could be used for control of malaria in Latin American countries.

BackgroundCurrent tools and strategies are not sufficient to reliably address threats and outbreaks of arboviruses including Zika, dengue, chikungunya, and yellow fever. Hence there is a growing public health challenge to identify the best new control tools to use against the vector Aedes aegypti. In this study, we investigated Ae. aegypti sugar feeding strategies in Bamako, Mali, to determine if this species can be controlled effectively using attractive toxic sugar baits (ATSB).MethodologyWe determined the relative attraction of Ae. aegypti males and females to a variety of sugar sources including flowers, fruits, seedpods, and honeydew in the laboratory and using plant-baited traps in the field. Next, we observed the rhythm of blood feeding versus sugar feeding activity of Ae. aegypti in vegetation and in open areas. Finally, we studied the effectiveness of spraying vegetation with ATSB on Ae. aegypti in sugar rich (lush vegetation) and in sugar poor (sparse vegetation) urban environments.Principal findingsMale and female laboratory sugar feeding rates within 24 h, on 8 of 16 plants offered were over 80%. The survival rates of mosquitoes on several plant sources were nearly as long as that of controls maintained on sucrose solution. In the field, females were highly attracted to 11 of 20 sugar sources, and 8 of these were attractive to males. Peak periods of host attraction for blood-feeding and sugar feeding in open areas were nearly identical and occurred shortly after sunrise and around sunset. In shaded areas, the first sugar-seeking peak occurred between 11:30 and 12:30 while the second was from 16:30 to 17:30. In a 50-day field trial, ATSB significantly reduced mean numbers of landing / biting female Ae. aegypti in the two types of vegetation. At sugar poor sites, the mean pre-treatment catch of 20.51 females on day 14 was reduced 70-fold to 0.29 on day 50. At sugar rich sites, the mean pre-treatment catch of 32.46 females on day 14 was reduced 10-fold to a mean of 3.20 females on day 50.ConclusionsThis is the first study to show how the vector Ae. aegypti depends on environmental resources of sugar for feeding and survival. The demonstration that Ae. aegypti populations rapidly collapsed after ATSB treatment, in both sugar rich and sugar poor environments, is strong evidence that Ae. aegypti is sugar-feeding frequently. Indeed, this study clearly demonstrates that Ae. aegypti mosquitoes depend on natural sugar resources, and a promising new method for vector control, ATSB, can be highly effective in the fight against Aedes-transmitted diseases.

We evaluated the efficacy of attractive toxic sugar baits (ATSB) in the laboratory and field with the low-risk active ingredient dinotefuran against mosquito populations. Preliminary laboratory assays indicated that dinotefuran in solution with the sugar baits was ingested and resulted in high mortality of female Culex quinquefasciatus Say and Aedes aegypti Linnaeus. Field studies demonstrated >70% reduction of mosquito populations at 3 wk post-ATSB application. Nontarget feeding of seven insect orders—Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Orthoptera, and Neuroptera—was evaluated in the field after application of attractive sugar baits (ASB) on vegetation by dissecting the guts and searching for food dye with a dissecting microscope. Nontargets were found stained with ASB 0.9% of the time when the application was applied on green nonflowering vegetation. Only two families were significantly impacted by the ASB application: Culicidae (mosquitoes) and Chironomidae (nonbiting midges) of the order Diptera. Pollinators of the other insect orders were not significantly impacted. No mortality was observed in the laboratory studies with predatory nontargets, wolf spiders or ground beetles, after feeding for 3 d on mosquitoes engorged on ATSB applied to vegetation. Overall, this novel control strategy had little impact on nontarget organisms, including pollinators and beneficial insects, and was effective at controlling mosquito populations, further supporting the development of ATSB for commercial use.

Human landing catch studies were conducted in a semi-field setting to determine the efficacy of seven commercial products used for personal protection against mosquitoes. Experiments were conducted in two empty, insecticide free, mesh-enclosed greenhouses, in Israel, with either 1500 Aedes albopictus or 1500 Culex pipiens released on consecutive study nights. The products tested in this study were the OFF!(®) Clip-On™ Mosquito Repellent (Metofluthrin 31.2%) and the Terminix(®) ALLCLEAR(®) Sidekick Mosquito Repeller (Cinnamon oil 10.5%; Eugenol 13%; Geranium oil 21%; Peppermint 5.3%; Lemongrass oil 2.6%), which are personal diffusers; Super Band™ Wristband (22% Citronella oil) and the PIC(®) Citronella Plus Wristband (Geraniol 15%; Lemongrass oil 5%, Citronella oil 1%); the Sonic Insect Repeller Keychain; the Mosquito Guard Patch (Oil of Lemon Eucalyptus 80mg), an adhesive-backed sticker for use on textiles; and the Mosquito Patch (vitamin B1 300mg), a transdermal patch. It was determined that the sticker, transdermal patch, wristbands and sonic device did not provide significant protection to volunteers compared with the mosquito attack rate on control volunteers who were not wearing a repellent device. The personal diffusers: - OFF!(®) Clip-On™ and Terminix(®) ALLCLEAR(®) Sidekick - provided superior protection compared with all other devices in this study. These diffusers reduced biting on the arms of volunteers by 96.28% and 95.26% respectively, for Ae. albopictus, and by 94.94% and 92.15% respectively, for Cx. pipiens. In a second trial conducted to compare these devices directly, biting was reduced by the OFF!(®) Clip-On™ and the Terminix(®) ALLCLEAR(®) by 87.55% and 92.83%, respectively, for Ae. albopictus, and by 97.22% and 94.14%, respectively, for Cx. pipiens. There was no significant difference between the performances of the two diffusers for each species.

To overcome the limitations of currently used window entry/exit traps, we developed an efficient new glue net entry/exit trap (GNT) that is economical, easily transported and assembled, and can be utilized for a variety of studies which aim to investigate the dynamics of mosquito movements between indoor and outdoor habitats. Cage experiments were conducted to determine what percentage of mosquitoes trying to pass through the netting are actually being caught. The GNT caught 97% of female and 98% of male Anopheles gambiae s.s., as well as 97.5% of female and 98% of male Culex pipiens attempting to cross into a bait chamber adjoining the release cage. During a six day field study, the bedroom windows of 12 homes in Mali were fitted with entry/exit GNTs. Traps without glue were fitted over the inside and outside bedroom windows of an additional 12 homes as a control. A total of 446 An. gambiae s.l. were caught attempting to exit dwellings while 773 An. gambiae s.l. were caught attempting to enter. The number of males and females attempting to exit dwellings were roughly similar (215 and 231 respectively) while there was a slight difference in the number of males and females trying to enter (382 and 430 respectively). Pyrethrum spray catches (PSC's) conducted inside the dwellings on the last day of the experiment yielded only six females and a single male.

The distribution of Aedes albopictus in Africa has thus far been known to be restricted to coastal Sub-Saharan countries. This report describes the first record of the tiger mosquito in habitats located in Mali, at a significant distance from the coastal areas of the continent. Aedes. albopictus was observed over several years in increasing frequency in Mopti in Central Mali and later in the capital city Bamako, both adjacent to the Niger River. These findings suggest further dissemination of Ae. albopictus could be facilitated by river transport of goods and commodities which harbor larvae and eggs of this species. If correct, the distribution of Ae. albopictus is expected to extend to areas located upstream of the Niger River and its tributaries.

We conducted a study to determine the degree of personal protection provided by the Terminix(®) ALLCLEAR(®) Mosquito Mister - Lantern Edition. This outdoor unit was operated to disperse an aerosolized aqueous 0.3% geraniol emulsion in timed-release intervals of 5.0, 7.5, and 10.0 min. Human volunteers participated in landing catch experiments to test the effect of geraniol sprayed at pre-set time intervals, at two distances: (1) 18 ft (5.49 m), the maximum effective distance claimed by the manufacturer, and (2) 9 ft (2.74 m), half the effective distance from the unit. When aerosolized geraniol was dispensed, reductions in biting pressure (landing, probing and biting mosquitoes) of Culex pipiens and Aedes albopictus, at all times and distances, were evident compared to dispensation of the water spray control. The degree of protection correlated well with the distance from the subject and the time interval of releases. The 5 min time interval mode reduced overall biting pressure by more than 90% at 9 ft (2.74 m) and 18 ft (5.49 m). Reduction of biting pressure in the 7.5 min mode was still well over 80% and even in the 10 min mode, overall protection was slightly above 80% at a distance of 9 ft. The lowest but still reasonable protection level was observed in the 10 min mode, at the periphery of the area the unit claims to protect (300 ft(2)), with a biting pressure reduction of approximately two-thirds.

During a 20-year survey we routinely collected Tabanidae in the Sinai resulting in a checklist of 22 species. We recorded 2 species for the Levant (Tabanus mordax Austen, 1911 and Tabanus gratus Loew, 1858), 4 species for Egypt (Nemorius irritans (Ricardo, 1901), Chrysops flavipes Meigen, 1804, Haematopota coronata Austen, 1908 and Haematopota pallens Loew, 1871), 5 species for the Sinai (Atylotus farinosus (Szilady, 1915), Tabanus arenivagus Austen, 1920 , Tabanus autumnalis Linnaeus, 1761, Haematopota minuscula Austen, 1920 and Dasyrhamphis nigritus Fabricius, 1794) for the first time and confirmed one doubtful record for the Sinai (Tabanus albifacies Loew, 1856). Furthermore we collected 10 more species that were previously known or could be presumed from the Sinai. The status of 4 species (Atylotus pallescens (Walker, 1871), Tabanus unifasciatus Loew, 1858, Tabanus politus (Walker, 1871) and Tabanus terminalis Walker, 1871) doubtfully recorded from the Sinai is discussed. For most of the 22 species, apart from zoogeographical notes, host and ecological observations are also given.

A survey was conducted to evaluate the number of tree-hole breeding mosquito species and their distribution in the six principal woodland types in Israel. Out of approximately 3,000 mature trees examined, only 38 contained holes that retained water for extended periods of time, and breeding mosquitoes were observed in 27 of them. Two specialized tree-hole breeders, Aedes pulchritarsis Rondani and Aedes geniculatus Oliver, were found breeding at several sites in northern Israel, always at locations 500 m above sea level (a.s.l) and with high annual precipitation. Aedes albopictus Skuse which, in Israel, is known as an opportunistic container breeder, was found in this study to have adapted remarkably well to breeding in tree holes and was found in most forest types investigated and in most tree species which had adequate tree holes. Two other species, Culiseta annulata Schrank and Culex pipiens Linnaeus instars, were found in one of the tree holes, but did not survive to reach maturity.

The horse fly fauna (Diptera: Tabanidae) of Jordan is, after Israel, the richest in the Levant, with 24 known species. During the 20-year project "The Ecology and Zoogeography of the Lepidoptera of the Near East," we regularly collected blood-feeding flies, resulting in 11 additional species of Tabanidae for Jordan. The new records are: Atylotus quadrifarius (Loew, 1874), Chrysops caecutiens (Linnaeus, 1758), Dasyrhamphis nigritus (Fabricius, 1794), Haematopota pallens Loew, 1871, Nemorius irritans (Ricardo, 1901), Philipomyia graeca (Fabricius, 1794), Tabanus cordiger Meigen, 1820, Tabanus taeniola Palisot de Beauvois, 1806, Tabanus quatuornotatus Meigen, 1820, Tabanus separatus Effllatoun, 1930, and Tabanus spectabilis Loew, 1858. Most of the new records (10/11) are of Palearctic origin; of these, six are of a Mediterranean and one each of West Palearctic, Euroasiatic, Irano-Turanian, and Eremic providence. Only one species, T. taeniola, is an Afrotropical-Eremic element.

Comparisons were conducted of flea catches of four commercially available flea traps in the laboratory and under field conditions, in both rural and urban locations. The results clearly showed the My Flea Trap™, which utilizes an intermittent light to attract fleas, to be far superior in trapping ability to the three continuous light traps; it caught up to 23 times as many fleas as the other traps. Altering the lighting mechanism to provide continuous rather than intermittent light significantly decreased the number of fleas captured. In addition, the use of a green filter significantly increased trapping efficiency, whereas the addition of a heat source had no apparent effect.

Knowledge about diurnal resting sites of sand flies is scanty and often anecdotal. In this study, we explored a part natural - part agricultural oasis in Neot Hakikar, Israel, looking for sand fly resting sites. To achieve this, we developed a new type of emergence trap. Sixteen types of microhabitats were examined and in seven of these, we also investigated the rodent burrows. We found that Phlebotomus papatasi showed clear preferences for resting sites characterized by vegetation cover, type of vegetation, and the presence of a mulch layer. In habitats with bare soil and little shade, few or no resting sand flies were found outside rodent burrows. Apart from the trunks of date trees, most resting P. papatasi were found in disturbed habitats, especially in large piles of organic waste and in a plowed field. Though catches from rodent burrow exits were always higher than from the nearby ground, it is safe to assume that the few burrows in this vast oasis do not play an important role for breeding and resting of P. papatasi. It also appears that disturbing the natural environment further increases the already considerable sand fly population.

The first goal of this study was to compare the degree of personal protection against biting insects provided by geraniol, linalool, and citronella candle (5%) vapors outdoors, where such products are commonly used. At a distance of 1.0 m, citronella candles reduced the number of female mosquitoes caught in Centers for Disease Control and Prevention traps by 35.4% and sand flies by 15.4%, linalool candles reduced female mosquitoes by 64.9% and sand flies by 48.5%, while geraniol candles reduced female mosquitoes by 81.5% and sand flies by 69.8%. By increasing the distance to 2 m and 3 m, the repellency dropped significantly. The second goal was to compare the degree of personal protection provided by the best performing candle, geraniol, under conditions of high and low biting pressure. The introduction of geraniol candles to protect volunteers in a high biting pressure environment reduced the mosquito pressure by an average of 56% and the sand fly pressure by 62% over a distance of 1.0 m. In the low biting pressure environment, geraniol reduced the mosquito pressure by an average of 62%. No sand flies were present at this site.

The repellent effect of 3 essential-oil-based candles was evaluated in a high biting pressure environment in Israel. In human landing assays, the repellency rate of 5% citronella candles against mosquitoes was 29.0%, of 5% linalool candles was 71.1%, and of 5% geraniol candles was 85.4%. The candles with geraniol were about twice as effective as those with linalool and were about 5 times as effective as citronella candles in protecting a person from being bitten indoors by mosquitoes. The repellency rate of 5% citronella candles towards sand flies was 24.7%, of 5% linalool candles was 55.2%, and of 5% geraniol candles was 79.7%. A geraniol candle was almost 5 times as effective as a citronella candle and about twice as effective as a linalool candle in protecting a person from being bitten indoors by sand flies.

The extensive survey in different regions of Ethiopia between 1987-1990 and 2005-2011 resulted in the recognition of 39 species of Plusiinae. The majority of the species belong to two large genera, Ctenoplusia (15 species) and Thysanoplusia (16 species). A new synonymy is established, Plusiotricha gorilla (Holland, 1894) is proved to represent the female sex of Plusiotricha livida Holland, 1894 (syn. nov.). The present paper does not include the records of the species of the tribe Abrostolini. Eighteen species are recorded for the first time from Ethiopia. Twenty species of the identified taxa are known only from tropical and subtropical Africa, while the areas of ten species extend from Africa to the Arabian Peninsula or even further to the north. Eight species are widespread not only in Africa but also in the Palearctic and Oriental regions. One species-Autographa gamma, a well-known Palearctic pest of different vegetables-is found in the Afrotropical region only in Ethiopia, at medium and high mountain elevations but not in the tropical lowlands.

Background Attractive toxic sugar bait (ATSB) solutions containing any gut toxins can be either sprayed on plants or used in simple bait stations to attract and kill sugar-feeding female and male mosquitoes. This field study in Mali demonstrates the effect of ATSB bait stations inside houses as a vector control method that targets and kills endophilic African malaria vectors. Methods The studies were conducted in five villages located near the River Niger, Mali. Baseline village-wide assessments of densities for female and male Anopheles gambiae sensu lato were performed by pyrethrum spray collections (PSC) in ten houses in each of five villages. To determine the rate of mosquito feeding on bait stations, one bait station per house containing attractive sugar bait (ASB) (without toxin) plus a food dye marker, was set up in ten houses in each of the five villages. PSC collections were conducted on the following day and the percentage of female and male mosquitoes that had fed was determined by visual inspection for the dye marker. Then, a 50-day field trial was done. In an experimental village, one bait station containing ATSB (1% boric acid active ingredient) was placed per bedroom (58 bedrooms), and indoor densities of female and male An. gambiae s.l. were subsequently determined by PSC, and female mosquitoes were age graded. Results In the five villages, the percentages of An. gambiae s.l. feeding inside houses on the non-toxic bait stations ranged from 28.3 to 53.1% for females and 36.9 to 78.3% for males. Following ATSB indoor bait station presentation, there was a significant reduction, 90% in female and 93% in male populations, of An. gambiae s.l. at the experimental village. A 3.8-fold decrease in the proportion of females that had undergone four or more gonotrophic cycles was recorded at the experimental village, compared to a 1.2-fold increase at the control village. Conclusion The field trial demonstrates that An. gambiae s.l. feed readily from ATSB bait stations situated indoors, leading to a substantial reduction in the proportion of older female mosquitoes. This study demonstrates that ATSB inside houses can achieve impressive malaria vector control in Africa.

Attractive toxic sugar bait (ATSB) is a highly effective method which targets mosquitoes based on their sugar foraging behavior, by presenting baits of attractive compounds in combination with sugar and oral toxin to local mosquito populations. Environmental concerns and insecticide selection-pressure have prompted investigations of novel, ecologically-harmless substances which can be used as insecticides. This study examined the efficacy of microencapsulated garlic-oil as the oral toxin component of ATSB for controlling Anopheles sergentii populations inhabiting desert-surrounded wetlands in Israel. ATSB solution containing 0.4% encapsulated garlic oil was applied to local vegetation around a streamlet located in the lower Jordan Valley. To determine the propensity of bait ingestion, and assess the potential ecological impact of the method, mosquito and non-target specimens were collected and tested for the presence of natural plant- or attractive sugar bait (ASB)-derived sugars. Over the experimental period, biting-pressure values in the ATSB treatment site decreased by 97.5%, while at the control site, treated with non-toxic ASB, no significant changes were observed. Approximately 70% of the mosquitoes collected before both treatments, as well as those captured following the application of ASB at the control site, were found to have ingested sugar prior to capture. Non-target insects were minimally affected by the treatment when ATSB was applied to foliage of non-flowering plants. Of the non-Diptera species, only 0.7% of the sampled non-target insects were found to have ingested ASB-solution which was applied to green vegetation, compared with 8.5% which have foraged on ASB-derived sugars applied to flowering plants. Conversely, a high proportion of the non-target species belonging to the order Diptera, especially non-biting midges, were found to have ingested foliage-applied ASB, with more than 36% of the specimens collected determined to have foraged on bait-derived sugars. These results prove that food-grade, EPA-exempt microencapsulated garlic oil is a highly effective insecticide which can be utilized for mosquito population control. The relatively short half-life of this active ingredient makes it a suitable for use in areas where repeated application is possible, limiting the accumulation of deleterious compounds and ensuring minimal environmental impact when applied in accordance with label recommendations.

TOC summary for table of contents: Infection with Leishmania tropica is emerging because of encroachment of rock hyraxes and transmission by multiple vector species., Transmission of Leishmania tropica was studied in 2 adjacent foci in Israel where vector populations differ. Only Phlebotomus sergenti was found infected with L. tropica in the southern focus; P. arabicus was the main vector in the northern focus. Rock hyraxes (Procavia capensis) were incriminated as reservoir hosts in both foci. L. tropica strains from the northern focus isolated from sand flies, cutaneous leishmaniasis cases, and rock hyraxes were antigenically similar to L. major, and strains from the southern focus were typically L. tropica. Laboratory studies showed that P. arabicus is a competent vector of L. tropica, and P. sergenti is essentially refractory to L. tropica from the northern focus. Susceptibility of P. arabicus may be mediated by O glycoproteins on the luminal surface of its midgut. The 2 foci differ with respect to parasites and vectors, but increasing peridomestic rock hyrax populations are probably responsible for emergence of cutaneous leishmaniasis in both foci.

1Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, IMRIC, Kuvin Centre for the Study of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel, 91120, GunterCMuller@hotmail.com 2United States Department of Agriculture-ARS-Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, Gainesville, FL, U.S.A. 3Department of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel 4Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa, Israel

The effect of attractive sugar bait stations, including sucrose, juice of nectarine, slow-release substances, preservatives, red food-dye marker, and the oral insecticide spinosad, on Anopheles sergentii and Aedes caspius populations was studied in a small oasis in a southern desert of Israel. Feeding on similar baits without an insecticide was monitored as a control in a similar neighboring oasis. The insecticide caused a drastic decrease in the number of mosquitoes. Compared to the control site, the An. sergentii population was reduced to less than a tenth and that of Ae. caspius declined to a third. The majority of the mosquitoes, 76.0% of An. sergentii females and 74.8% of Ae. caspius females, were marked by the food dye in the control site.

The present study assessed the personal protection efficiency of seven commercially available mosquito control devices (MCD) under field conditions in Israel. Trials were performed in a high biting-pressure area inhabited by large populations of mosquito and biting midge species, using human volunteers as bait in landing catch experiments. Results show that under minimal air-movement, three spatial repellent based products (ThermaCELL(®) Patio Lantern, OFF!(®) PowerPad lamp, and Terminix(®) ALLCLEAR Tabletop Mosquito Repeller) significantly reduced the biting-pressure (t-test - P0.01) when positioned at short distances from a volunteer (3, 7.5, and 10ft.), with the ThermaCELL unit being most effective (96.1, 89.9, and 76.66% reduction, respectively). No significant differences were seen between the three aforementioned devices at distances of 3 and 7.5ft., while at a distance of 10ft., only the ThermaCELL patio lantern repelled significantly more mosquitoes then the Terminix ALLCLEAR Tabletop Mosquito Repeller (t-test, P0.05). In contrast, mosquito traps using attracting cues to bait mosquitoes (Dynatrap(®), Vortex(®) Electronic Insect Trap, Blue Rhino(®) SV3100) either significantly increased or had no effect on the biting-pressure at short distances compared with the unprotected control. Trials conducted over large areas showed that only the Blue Rhino trap was able to significantly reduce the biting-pressure (40.1% reduction), but this was only when operating four units at the corners of an intermediate sized area.

Pangonius theodori a new horse fly species (Diptera: Tabanidae: Pangoniinae) from northern Israel and southern Lebanon is described. The zoogeography, habitat preference and taxonomic position within the genus of the new species is discussed in detail.

Knowledge of the horse fly fauna (Diptera: Tabanidae) of Lebanon is fragmentary, while the local fauna of most neighboring countries has been fairly well researched. Within the framework of the 20-year project "The ecology and zoogeography of the Lepidoptera of the Near East," we regularly collected biting flies in the whole region, including Lebanon. During this time we recorded 14 horse fly species for two subfamilies in Lebanon: four Pangoniinae and ten Chrysopsinae. Only a single species, Chrysops flavipes Meigen, 1804, was known previously in Lebanon, but the following four Pangoniinae: Pangonius haustellatus (Fabricius, 1781), Pangonius obscuratus Loew, 1859, Pangonius argentatus (Szilady, 1923), and Pangonius fulvipes (Loew, 1859) and nine Chrysopsinae: Silvius appendiculatus Macquart, 1846, Silvius ochraceus Loew, 1858, Nemorius irritans (Ricardo, 1901), Nemorius vitripennis (Meigen, 1820), Chrysops buxtoniAusten, 1922, Chrysops compactusAusten, 1924, Chrysops caecutiens (Linnaeus, 1758), Chrysops italicus Meigen, 1804, and Chrysops hamatus Loew, 1858 are new records for the Lebanese fauna. The Tabanidae fauna of Lebanon is completely Palearctic and most species are of a Mediterranean distribution type. Lebanon or nearby northern Israel appears to be in the Levant, the southern geographical distribution border for the Pangoniinae and Chrysopsinae.

Recently, in several areas of the Middle East, a sharp increase of cutaneous leishmaniasis was observed in suburbs of larger towns including Jerusalem. In some of these areas, poor housing conditions and unsuitable waste management was suspected to provide ideal conditions for sand fly breeding, but hard data on diurnal resting sites and breeding habitats of most sand fly species are scant. In this study, we chose 16 sites on both slopes and the bottom of a natural valley in the Judean Desert to conduct a survey of sand fly distribution with emergence traps. Altogether, 1,261 sand flies, 52%Phlebotomus syriacus, 22%P. sergenti, 14%P. papatasi and 12%P. tobbi were caught. About two thirds of the flies caught were resting, while the other third emerged from breeding sites. All four species showed clear preferences for resting and breeding sites, but generally, most sand flies were breeding in the more humid habitats, namely the bottom of the valley, the adjacent north facing slope, terraces on the north facing slope, and caves. The vegetation cover also appeared to be important for resting habitats; on the bottom of the valley more than six times as many sand flies were collected in areas covered by dense vegetation than in areas with low vegetation cover. P. sergenti seemed also to better tolerate the drier habitats, which might explain the abundance of this species in the arid Judean Desert.

Altogether, 4,008 sand flies belonging to seven species were collected over a period of one year in the micro-habitats of a single canyon in the Carmel Mountain ridge. The three most abundant were P. arabicus, P. tobbi, and P. simici. Our results suggest that none of the seven sand fly species was indifferent to the heterogeneity of the microenvironment inside the canyon. Apart from the rare P. perfiliewi, which was only collected on the upper part of the south-facing slope, and P. tobbi, which clustered on the north-facing slope, the bulk of the other sand flies were caught on the bottom of the canyon. During the summer, the catches of all sand fly species increased to reach their maximum number in August and September. In April and May, there was lush vegetation and humidity, so species were distributed evenly throughout their habitats. With the onset of summer dryness, the sand flies concentrated in the humid habitats. The rate of concentration was essentially higher for males than for females, and this variation may result from differences in the behavior of the two sexes. During our study, none of the 2,318 dissected female sand flies were positive for Leishmania promastigotes.

We determined the degree of personal protection provided by citronella, linalool, and geraniol in the form of commercially available candles or diffusers, both indoors and outdoors. Under the uniform conditions of the experiments, all substances repelled significantly more mosquitoes than the unprotected control. Furthermore, the repellents tested were more active when in the form of a continuous release diffuser than in candle form. All candles were 88 g containing 5% of the active ingredient and all diffusers contained 20 g of 100% active ingredient. Indoors, the repellency rate of citronella candles was only 14% while the repellency rate of citronella diffusers was 68%. The repellency of geraniol candles was 50% while the diffusers provided a repellency rate of 97%. No linalool candles were available for study but linalool diffusers repelled mosquitoes by 93%. Outdoors, citronella diffusers placed 6 m from mosquito traps repelled female mosquitoes by 22%, linalool repelled females by 58%, and geraniol repelled females by 75%. Trap catches were significantly reduced again when diffusers were placed 3 m from the traps. We concluded that geraniol had significantly more repellent activity than citronella or linalool in both indoor and outdoor settings.

The bionomics of phlebotomine sandflies (Diptera: Psychodidae) were studied for three years (2001-2003) in the Galilee focus of cutaneous leishmaniasis in northern Israel, where the causative Leishmania tropica (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) is transmitted by Phlebotomus (Adlerius) arabicus Theodor and Phlebotomus (Paraphlebotomus) sergenti Parrot, comprising 22% and 8%, respectively, of the local sandfly fauna sampled by light traps. The predominant species overall was Phlebotomus (Larroussius) tobbi Adler & Theodor (51%) with lesser numbers of Phlebotomus (Adlerius) simici Theodor (11%), Phlebotomus (Larroussius) syriacus Adler & Theodor (5%), Phlebotomus (Larroussius) perfiliewi Perfil'ev (3%) and Phlebotomus (Phlebotomus) papatasi Scopoli (0.05%). Sandfly adult populations were prevalent from April to November and peaked between June and August, being more abundant through the summer in irrigated habitats, such as gardens and orchards, than in open grassland. Of the two cutaneous leishmaniasis vectors, P. sergenti preferred boulder mounds located at the outskirts of settlements, whereas P. arabicus was more abundant overall and near houses in particular. Females of all these sandfly species displayed a peak of activity after sunset (20.00-22.00 hours), whereas activity of males persisted longer through the night. Another slight increase in activity was noted before dawn (02.00-04.00 hours). Phlebotomus arabicus appears to be the main vector of L. tropica in the Galilee focus, due to its denser populations, more endophily and preference for peridomestic habitats than shown by P. sergenti in northern Israel.

The antidiuretic hormone (ADH) content in the blood plasma in comparison with its osmosis, the mass of circulating blood and the Na/K ratio in the urine was studied in 59 patients with rheumatic heart disease, atherosclerotic cardiosclerosis and chronic nonspecific affections of the lungs with and without circulatory insufficiency. The blood plasma ADH level is shown to increase significantly only with circulatory insufficiency of the IIB-III stage, whereas the plasma osmosis first has a tendency to rise and then gradually declines. This may suggest a deranged regulation of the ADH secretion with a higher osmosis of the plasma. No clear-cut parallelism between changes in the ADH level, the mass of circulating blood and plasma, the Na/K ratio in the urine and diurnal urinary output could be noted.