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Bedding material or litter is an important requirement of meat chicken production which can influence bird welfare, health, and food safety. A substantial increase in demand and cost of chicken bedding has stimulated interest in alternative bedding sources worldwide. However, risks arising from the use of alternative bedding materials for raising meat chickens are currently unknown. Organic chemicals, elemental, and biological contaminants, as well as physical and management hazards need to be managed in litter to protect the health of chickens and consequently that of human consumers. This requires access to information on the transfer of contaminants from litter to food to inform risk profiles and assessments to guide litter risk management. In this review, contaminants and hazards of known and potential concern in alternative bedding are described and compared with existing standards for feed. The contaminants considered in this review include organic chemical contaminants (e.g., pesticides), elemental contaminants (e.g., arsenic, cadmium, and lead), biological contaminants (phytotoxins, mycotoxins, and microorganisms), physical hazards, and management hazards. Reference is made to scientific literature for acceptable levels of the above contaminants in chicken feed that can be used for guidance by those involved in selecting and using bedding materials.

BACKGROUND The nature and depth of bedding material have an important influence on cow lying behaviour and comfort. Increasing use of recycled manure solids (RMS) as bedding led to an investigation of the influence of this material on cow lying behaviour. METHODS Leg mounted accelerometers were used to estimate daily lying time and number and duration of lying bouts in four groups of 40 cows. Each group spent two 2-week periods on each of four bedding systems: deep sand, deep RMS, sawdust on mattresses and RMS on mattresses. RESULTS Total daily lying times were significantly shorter on both RMS treatments than on sawdust. Number of lying bouts per day was greater on sawdust than any other treatment, while lying bouts were 2.6 min longer on deep RMS and 9.3 min longer on sand, than on sawdust. CONCLUSIONS Greater depth and apparent softness of bedding material does not necessarily result in longer total daily lying times. RMS may have some characteristics that reduce its attraction as a bedding material for cows. The influence of bedding system on number and duration of lying bouts and the resulting total lying time appear complex.

The article reports a case of acute copper sulfate (CuSO4) poisoning in 2-day-old turkeys. The first incidences were noticed 2 h after placing the animals in the poultry house, where turkeys were provided with wood shaving bedding. Post-mortem examination showed wood shavings present in gastric and intestinal contents and numerous lesions in the alimentary tract: dark green color of the koilin lining, and surface erosions, deep ulceration, and severe congestion of the gizzard. The copper (Cu) concentration in samples of the liver, kidney, heart, gizzard content, gizzard muscle, gizzard lining, and wood shavings from the bedding was determined. Our results showed that the level of Cu in the livers of affected birds was more than sevenfold higher than the recommended value and the Cu content in bedding material was above the value considered to be toxic to turkeys. Our investigation identified the bedding disinfected using a CuSO4 solution as a possible cause of turkey fatalities.

Poultry house dust is composed of fine particles which likely originate from a diverse range of materials such as feed, litter, excreta, and feathers. Little is known about the contribution of these sources to broiler house airborne dust so the present study was designed to identify the relative contributions of these sources. Samples of feed, excreta, feather, and bedding, known mixtures of these and settled dust from 28 broiler chicken flocks were tested for the concentration of 18 chemical elements. A chemometrics approach (the application of multivariate statistical techniques to chemical analysis data) was used to identify the primary source material in broiler chicken house dust samples. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was also used to analyze dust sample particulates based on examination of source materials. Excreta was found to be the main component of broiler chicken house dust, both by SEM and chemometric analysis. SEM of experimental flock dust between 7 and 35 days of age (d) revealed that the contribution of excreta to dust increased with age from 60% at 7 d to 95% at 28 d (P < 0.001). The proportion of bedding and feed in dust declined with age while the contribution of feather material remained low throughout. This study demonstrates that excreta provides the bulk of the material in poultry dust samples with bedding material, feed and feather material providing lower proportions. The relative contributions of these materials to dust varies with age of birds at dust collection. Additional research is required to determine the health and diagnostic implications of this variation.

Corncob is a common bedding material used in laboratory rodents, but little is known about differences in the effects of the 2 available sizes on rodent models and health. This study compared the effects of these 2 corncob bedding sizes on cage ammonia levels, behavior, and respiratory pathology in mice. We hypothesized that the beddings would not differ significantly in their effects on these parameters. Two strains of male mice (C57BL/6 and 129S1/Svlm) were housed in static, filter-top cages containing 1 of the 2 bedding types for the duration of the study (12 wk). Intracage ammonia was measured during 1 wk of the study on days 0, 3, 5, and 7. Behavior was evaluated by using circadian rhythm, open field, and Morris water-maze tests. Animals were euthanized with injectable euthanasia solution to collect respiratory and ocular tissues for histopathologic lesion scoring. Animals that were euthanized immediately upon arrival from the vendor served as negative controls. Bedding size did not significantly affect behavior or ammonia levels. Average intracage ammonia levels on day 7 were 525 ppm for 1/4-in. bedding and 533 ppm for 1/8-in. bedding. Regardless of the bedding size, lesions noted in both strains of mice were of similar incidence and severity, were limited to the nose, and consisted of minimal to mild suppurative rhinitis. The eyes, trachea, and lungs were not affected. In conclusion, 1/4-in. and 1/8-in. corncob beddings have comparable effects on cage ammonia levels and the behavior and respiratory pathology in male mice of the strains tested.

Interactions with livestock in public settings such as county and state fairs can expose people and other livestock to faecal material capable of spreading zoonotic enteric pathogens. The goal of this study was to understand these risks by screening livestock faeces (n = 245) and livestock bedding (n = 155) for common zoonotic pathogens (Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Salmonella and Campylobacter spp.) and by measuring faecal indicator, Escherichia coli, concentrations in drinking water (n = 153), feed containers (n = 124) and bedding material (n = 157) in four livestock species (cattle, sheep, goats and swine) from county fairs in California, USA. Results indicated that sheep were most likely to have pathogens detected in faeces and that Giardia was the most frequently detected pathogen in both faeces (11%) and bedding (21%) across all livestock species. Additionally, increasing the number of animals in a holding pen at fairs, increasing the stocking density of animals in transport trailers to fairs, and having access to water in transport trailers significantly increased the odds of detecting pathogens in livestock faeces of any animal species. Observing solid material in water, stale feed and soiled bedding was associated with detecting higher E. coli concentrations. These findings provide evidence of faecal pathogens present at county fairs and suggest that site observations can aid in assessing levels of faecal exposure. The findings also indicate that the use of biosecurity measures such as (a) routine changing of livestock drinking water, feed and bedding, (b) not overstocking animals in holding pens and trailers and (c) keeping species in separate holding areas may reduce the risk of humans and livestock being exposed to faecal pathogens.

Compost-bedded pack (CBP) barns for dairy cows mainly use sawdust as bedding material. The objective of this study was to compare forest biomass to sawdust as bedding material for CBP. Variables evaluated included CBP moisture, temperature and C:N ratio, bedding microbial counts, and behavior and welfare measures of nonlactating cows. The experimental design was a crossover where two 11-wk periods were performed. Treatments were CBP with sawdust (CBP-S) as a control treatment and CBP with forest biomass (CBP-FB) as the experimental bedding material. Weather conditions, intake, CBP temperature, CBP moisture, and welfare assessment were measured during the entire periods. We took CBP samples for microbiological analysis and video recordings for animal behavior assessment in wk 11 of each period. The CBP management was the same in both treatments and periods, based on twice-daily tilling at a 30 cm depth, and the addition of 0.8 kg/m2 of new bedding material per day. Ambient temperature and environmental humidity were 9.1°C and 82.5% in period 1, and 13.2°C and 75.3% in period 2. Average DMI and water consumption were 17.4 ± 0.86 kg/d and 50.9 ± 7.84 L/d in period 1, and 16.3 ± 0.96 kg/d and 56.3 ± 8.02 L/d in period 2. Average of temperature, moisture, and C:N ratio of CBP were 32.2°C, 63.6%, and 44:1 in CBP-S, and 24.3°C, 66.4%, and 35:1 in CBP-FB, respectively. Temperature was higher in CBP-S than in CBP-FB, and in period 2 compared with period 1. Moisture was higher in CBP-FB than in CBP-S in period 1, but did not differ between treatments in period 2. The C:N ratio was higher in CBP-S than in CBP-FB in both periods. Total bacteria count and Bacillus spp. were similar between treatments. Klebsiella spp. counts in CBP-S were higher than in CBP-FB, and Streptococcus spp. and yeasts and fungi counts in CBP-S were lower than in CBP-FB. Total coliforms, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus counts in CBP-S were higher than in CBP-FB in period 1, but did not differ between treatments in period 2. No differences were detected in lying time (15.5 h/d), and time needed to lie down was higher in CBP-FB (5.3 s) than in CBP-S (4.6 s). We found that CBP performance and cow comfort in CBP-FB were lower than in CBP-S, but microbial counts of some species were better controlled in CBP-FB than in CBP-S.

The bedding material used in barns for dairy cows has a significant effect on animal welfare and performance. Bedding influences the duration in which animals remain lying down and, consequently, the processes of rumination and milk production. It is crucial to have a complete understanding of the properties of bedding materials and the effects of alternative bedding materials on dairy cattle. This paper aims to evaluate the physical, chemical, and biological properties of various alternative and conventional bedding materials for dairy cattle for use in compost bedded pack or freestall barn systems. We analyzed 50 samples of 17 bedding materials produced in 3 European countries. We analyzed physical properties including the water holding capacity, porosity, moisture content, bulk density, dry bulk density, and particle size. Chemical analyses were performed to determine the total N, total organic C, and C:N ratio. In the biological analyses, the Escherichia coli count, total bacteria count, coliform count, and Klebsiella spp. count were assessed. The results demonstrated how the physical properties of the bedding materials may influence the chemical and biological properties. All of the materials presented adequate chemical properties to be used as bedding material. The physical properties of the bedding materials differed widely among the materials except for the dry bulk density, which presented no difference. Moreover, the contamination of each studied microorganism was observed for each bedding material to determine which material had the lowest level of contamination. Posidonia oceanica, Miscanthus grass, and spelt husks could be considered as a potential alternative material for use as bedding material for dairy cows in both systems (i.e., composted bedded pack and freestall). This experiment illustrated the importance of performing thorough physical, chemical, and biological analyses before implementing a material as bedding for dairy cattle.

Components of bedding might interact with experimental treatments and affect the outcome of various experiments. Here we studied the biochemical effects of 3 rodent bedding materials that are commonly used in Egypt. Male and female rats and mice were assigned randomly into 4 single-sex and single-species groups (10 animals per group). Three types of bedding-rice straw, wheat straw, and pine wood shavings-were evaluated. After 4 wk, animals were euthanized, and biochemical parameters were measured. In male and female rats given wood shavings, serum ALT activity and malondialdehyde concentration increased whereas catalase activity decreased compared with levels in the wheat straw group. In contrast, ALT activity and malondialdehyde concentrations decreased but CAT activity increased in rats housed on rice straw compared with wheat straw. Serum AST and ALT activities increased in male and female mice exposed to rice straw, whereas the malondialdehyde concentration increased and catalase decreased in the wood shavings group relative to the wheat straw group. In mice exposed to wheat straw, AST and ALT activities and malondialdehyde concentrations decreased and CAT activity increased compared with the other groups. Because our results showed that exposure to wood shavings affects some biochemical parameters of rats and mice, we do not recommend its use as laboratory animal bedding. We consider that, of the materials tested, rice straw bedding is the best bedding material for rats, whereas wheat straw is best for mice.

Germ-Free (GF) research has required highly technical pressurized HEPA-ventilation anchored systems for decades. Herein, we validated a GF system that can be easily implemented and portable using Nested Isolation (NesTiso). GF-standards can be achieved housing mice in non-HEPA-static cages, which only need to be nested ‘one-cage-inside-another’ resembling ‘Russian dolls’. After 2 years of monitoring ~100,000 GF-mouse-days, NesTiso showed mice can be maintained GF for life (>1.3 years), with low animal daily-contamination-probability risk (1 every 867 days), allowing the expansion of GF research with unprecedented freedom and mobility. At the cage level, with 23,360 GF cage-days, the probability of having a cage contamination in NesTiso cages opened in biosafety hoods was statistically identical to that of opening cages inside (the ‘gold standard’) multi-cage pressurized GF isolators. When validating the benefits of using NesTiso in mouse microbiome research, our experiments unexpectedly revealed that the mouse fecal microbiota composition within the ‘bedding material’ of conventional SPF-cages suffers cyclical selection bias as moist/feces/diet/organic content (‘soiledness’) increases over time (e.g., favoring microbiome abundances of Bacillales, Burkholderiales, Pseudomonadales; and cultivable Enterococcus faecalis over Lactobacillus murinus and Escherichia coli), which in turn cyclically influences the gut microbiome dynamics of caged mice. Culture ‘co-streaking’ assays showed that cohoused mice exhibiting different fecal microbiota/hemolytic profiles in clean bedding (high-within-cage individual diversity) ‘cyclically and transiently appear identical’ (less diverse) as bedding soiledness increases, and recurs. Strategies are proposed to minimize this novel functional form of cyclical bedding-dependent microbiome selection bias.

Bedding, environmental enrichment materials and disinfectant powders in pig farming are meant to ensure a hygienic bedding environment or allow pigs to perform explorative behaviour. To our knowledge, no legal regulation exists, that established maximum contents for undesirable substances, such as toxic metals, dioxins or trace elements in these materials, although oral ingestion could be expected. In the present study, a total of 74 materials (disinfectant powders [n = 51], earth/peat [n = 12], biochar [n = 8], recycled manure solids [n = 3]) were analysed for their content of various toxic metals, trace elements, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls. The data suggest that, in some samples, trace elements like iron, copper and zinc might have been added intentionally in order to induce physiological effects (iron supply to piglets, copper and zinc as growth promoter in pigs). Moreover, some materials contained high levels of lead, cadmium or arsenic. Consequently, if farm animals repeatedly consume environmental enrichment and bedding materials or disinfectant powders in considerable amounts and these quantities are added to the daily ration, the amount of ingested undesirable substances and trace elements might exceed the maximum levels set for complete feedstuffs, and an elevated transfer into food of animal origin might occur. Future studies are required to address the possible quantitative contribution in the light of feed and food safety. Finally, the excretion of undesirable substances with manure needs to be considered due to their possible accumulation in soils.

The choice of bedding material affects the quality of air in a stable and, consequently, the respiratory health of horses and humans. The risk of respiratory problems can be mitigated by improving the quality of air in the stable. The choice of bedding material is particularly important in cold climate conditions where horses are kept indoors throughout the year. This study examined the impact of three bedding materials: straw (S), peat with shavings (PS), and crushed wood pellets (CWP). The investigated factors were air contamination, including dust contamination and microbial (bacterial and fungal) contamination, and the condition of the equine respiratory tract. The condition of the respiratory tract was evaluated based on the results of arterial blood biochemistry tests and endoscopic evaluations of the upper respiratory tract. Mechanical dust contamination was lowest for PS (1.09mg/m3) and highest for CWP (4.07mg/m3). Bacterial contamination (in CFU - colony forming units) was highest for PS (5.14log10CFU/m3) and lowest for CWP (4.81log10CFU/m3). Fungal air contamination was lowest for CWP (4.54log10CFU/m3) and highest for S (4.82log10CFU/m3) and PS (4.88log10CFU/m3). An analysis of physiological indicators revealed that all horses were clinically healthy regardless of the type of applied bedding. The type of bedding material did not exert a clear influence on arterial blood biochemistry or the results of endoscopic evaluations of the respiratory tract; however, the use of alternative for straw bedding materials improved endoscopy results.

Broiler chickens are commonly placed on wood shavings as litter, but alternative litter sources are required due to the scarcity of wood shavings in many parts of the world. This study aimed to compare pelleted straw, chopped wheat straw, wood shavings, rice hulls, and shredded paper as litter candidates. Three-hundred-sixty Ross 308 one-day-old male chicks were used in this study. There were 5 litter treatments with 6 replicate pens, each with 12 birds. The feed conversion ratio (FCR) of birds reared on pelleted straw was improved compared (P

Objectives: Rodents used in scientific research are typically housed in cages containing natural bedding materials. Despite extensive evidence of biological harm from inhaled particulate matter (PM), relatively little work has been performed to measure bedding-generated PM exposure in caged animals used in basic science research. Our objectives were to determine whether bedding-generated PM was present in significant concentrations in rodent cages and to identify the main factors affecting the accumulation and attenuation of bedding-generated PM inside cages. Materials and Methods: We measured PM2.5 concentrations in cages containing common bedding materials (pine, aspen, paper, and corncob) with filter top isolator absent or present on the cages. PM2.5 concentrations were monitored with rats inside cages as well as during artificial manipulation of the bedding (designed to simulate rodent activity). Results and Discussion: Upon rodent digging or mechanical/manual stirring, all four bedding materials produced significant increases in PM2.5 concentrations (as much as 100–200 µg/m3 PM2.5, 50- to 100-fold higher than during periods of no rodent activity), and concentrations in cages fitted with filter tops were an order of magnitude higher than in cages without filter tops. Elevated concentrations were sustained for longer durations in cages with filter tops (5–10 minutes) compared to cages with only bar lids (0–2 minutes). Conclusions: These results indicate that standard laboratory housing conditions can expose rodents to substantial levels of PM2.5. Bedding-generated PM has potential implications as an environmental agent in rodent studies.

Pododermatitis is a disorder with a complex etiology, because potentially determined by various factors such as posture, nutrition and genetics. In the case of presence of pododermal lesions, it is often noticed that rabbits go to eat at the bowl less frequently, but an evident weight loss is not always perceptible. In fact, similarly to poultry, overweight animals seem to be prone to the onset of pododermatitis. An experiment was carried out to test the effect of different types of bedding material (straw vs. wood shavings vs. coarse bark mulch vs. cotton) on the prevalence of pododermatitis in 30 fattening Separator rabbits. Once a week, the four experimental runs were assessed for contamination (macroscopic contamination by faeces/urine/litter) as well as for lesion scoring of the footpad. In addition, the water and ammonia binding behaviour of bedding was tested. The most favourable values as to dry matter, NH3 (p

Objectives of this study were to (1) describe the intramammary infection (IMI) prevalence and pathogen profiles in quarters of cows approaching dry-off in US dairy herds, (2) compare IMI prevalence in quarters of cows exposed to different bedding material types, and (3) identify associations between bedding bacteria count and IMI in cows approaching dry-off. Eighty herds using 1 of 4 common bedding materials (manure solids, organic non-manure, new sand, and recycled sand) were recruited in a multi-site cross-sectional study. Each herd was visited twice for sampling. At each visit, aseptic quarter-milk samples were collected from 20 cows approaching dry-off (>180 d pregnant). Samples of unused and used bedding were also collected. Aerobic culture was used to determine the IMI status of 10,448 quarters and to enumerate counts (log10 cfu/mL) of all bacteria, Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp. and Streptococcus-like organisms (SSLO), coliforms, Klebsiella spp., noncoliform gram-negatives, Bacillus spp., and Prototheca spp. in unused (n = 148) and used (n = 150) bedding. The association between bedding bacteria count and IMI was determined using multivariable logistic regression with mixed effects. Quarter-level prevalence of IMI was 21.1%, which was primarily caused by non-aureus Staphylococcus spp. (11.4%) and SSLO (5.6%). Only modest differences in IMI prevalence were observed between the 4 common bedding material types. Counts of all bacteria in unused bedding was positively associated with odds of IMI caused by any pathogen [ALL-IMI; odds ratio (OR) = 1.08]. A positive association was also observed for counts of SSLO in unused bedding and SSLO-IMI (OR = 1.09). These patterns of association were generally consistent across the 4 common bedding materials. In contrast, the association between counts of all bacteria in used bedding and ALL-IMI varied by bedding type, with positive associations observed in quarters exposed to manure solids (OR = 2.29) and organic non-manure (OR = 1.51) and a negative association in quarters exposed to new sand (OR = 0.47). Findings from this study suggest that quarter-level IMI prevalence in late-lactation cows is low in US dairy herds. Furthermore, bedding material type may not be an important risk factor for IMI in late lactation. Higher levels of bacteria in bedding may increase IMI prevalence at dry-off in general, but this relationship is likely to vary according to bedding material type.

As part of routine husbandry, an increasing number of laboratory mice receive nesting material in addition to standard bedding material in their cages. Nesting material improves health outcomes and physiological performance in mice that receive it. Providing usable nesting material uniformly and efficiently to various strains of mice remains a challenge. The aim of this study was to determine how bedding particle size, method of nesting material delivery, and processing of the nesting material before delivery affected nest building in mice of strong (BALB/cAnNCrl) and weak (C3H/HeNCrl) gathering abilities. Our data suggest that processing nesting material through a grinder in conjunction with bedding material, although convenient for provision of bedding with nesting material ‘built-in’, negatively affects the integrity of the nesting material and subsequent nest-building outcomes. We also found that C3H mice, previously thought to be poor nest builders, built similarly scored nests to those of BALB/c mice when provided with unprocessed nesting material. This was true even when nesting material was mixed into the bedding substrate. We also observed that when nesting material was mixed into the bedding substrate, mice of both strains would sort their bedding by particle size more often than if it were not mixed in. Our findings support the utility of the practice of distributing nesting material mixed in with bedding substrate, but not that of processing the nesting material with the bedding in order to mix them.

Bedding materials may affect air quality in livestock facilities. Our objective in this study was to compare headspace concentrations of ammonia (NH₃), total reduced sulfides (TRS), carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O) when pine wood chips (Pinus spp.) and corn stover (Zea mays L.) were mixed in various ratios (0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, and 100% pine chips) and used as bedding with manure. Air samples were collected from the headspace of laboratory-scaled bedded manure packs weekly for 42 d. Ammonia concentrations were highest for bedded packs containing 0, 10, and 20% pine chips (equivalent to 501.7, 502.3, and 502.3 mg m⁻³, respectively) in the bedding mixture and were lowest when at least 80% pine chips were used as bedding (447.3 and 431.0 mg m⁻³, respectively for 80 and 100% pine chip bedding). The highest NH₃ concentrations were observed at Day 28. The highest concentration of TRS was observed when 100% pine chips were used as bedding (11.4 µg m⁻³), with high concentrations occurring between Days 7 and 14, and again at Day 35. Greenhouse gases were largely unaffected by bedding material but CH₄ and CO₂ concentrations increased as the bedded packs aged and N₂O concentrations were highly variable throughout the incubation. We conclude that a mixture of bedding material that contains 30 to 40% pine chips may be the ideal combination to reduce both NH₃ and TRS emissions. All gas concentrations increased as the bedded packs aged, suggesting that frequent cleaning of facilities would improve air quality in the barn, regardless of bedding materials used.

WOS: 000463240000014, PubMed: 30476277, Many bedding materials have been tested in broiler industry for their suitability. However, little knowledge is available regarding the usage of different bedding materials supplemented with sepiolite and their effects on animal performance and final product quality. For this purpose, a total of 288 day-old male broiler chicks were randomly allocated into two types of bedding materials (wood shavings and rice hulls). Each bedding material group was divided into 3 subgroups: control with 0% sepiolite, 25%-sepiolite group, and 50%-sepiolite group. Each sub-group was placed in 6 pens with 8 chicks per pen. The effects of bedding materials and sepiolite additions on slaughter yields and some meat quality parameters in broilers were evaluated. Slaughter parameters including hot carcass yield and relative weights of thigh and breast meat, heart, liver, gizzard and bursa Fabricius in broilers were not affected by bedding materials and sepiolite additions (P > 0.05). Also, no significant differences were observed among experimental groups for cooking loss and nutritional profile of breast and thigh meat of broilers (P > 0.05). The freshly measured pH(0) of breast and thigh meats was significantly affected by the bedding material and was higher for wood shavings group (P < 0.01). Breast and thigh meats of broilers reared on rice hulls were lighter (P < 0.01), less red, and less yellow in color than those reared on wood shavings, whereas no effect of sepiolite additions was observed on the color of both meat cuts. No substantial effect of bedding material and sepiolite additions was observed on white stripping; however, their occurrence rate found was very high for meat of broilers reared on rice hulls than those reared on wood shavings (P > 0.05). In conclusion, broilers reared on either wood shavings or rice hulls with or without sepiolite additions did not show any negative effects on slaughter yields and meat quality parameters. Furthermore, sepiolite can be an option as a bedding material for broiler industry, but further research with thorough economic analysis is required.

Mesophilic and thermophilic spore-forming bacteria represent a challenge to the dairy industry, as these bacteria are capable of surviving adverse conditions associated with processing and sanitation and eventually spoil dairy products. The dairy farm environment, including soil, manure, silage, and bedding, has been implicated as a source for spores in raw milk. High levels of spores have previously been isolated from bedding, and different bedding materials have been associated with spore levels in bulk tank (BT) raw milk; however, the effect of different bedding types, bedding management practices, and bedding spore levels on the variance of spore levels in BT raw milk has not been investigated. To this end, farm and bedding management surveys were administered and unused bedding, used bedding, and BT raw milk samples were collected from dairy farms (1 or 2 times per farm) across the United States over 1 yr; the final data set included 182 dairy farms in 18 states. Bedding suspensions and BT raw milk were spore pasteurized (80°C for 12 min), and mesophilic and thermophilic spores were enumerated. Piecewise structural equation modeling analysis was used to determine direct and indirect pathways of association among farm and bedding practices, levels of spores in unused and used bedding, and levels of spores in BT raw milk. Separate models were constructed for mesophilic and thermophilic spore levels. The analyses showed that bedding material had a direct influence on levels of spores in unused and used bedding as well as an indirect association with spore levels in BT raw milk through used bedding spore levels. Specific bedding and farm management practices as well as cow hygiene in the housing area were associated with mesophilic and thermophilic spore levels in unused bedding, used bedding, and BT raw milk. Notably, levels of spores in used bedding were positively related to those in unused bedding, and used bedding spore levels were positively related to those in BT raw milk. The results of this study increase the understanding of the levels and ecology of mesophilic and thermophilic spores in raw milk, emphasize the possible role of bedding as a source of spores on-farm, and present opportunities for dairy producers to reduce spore levels in BT raw milk.

Bedding material, which is a significant part of rodent housing, affects the health and well-being of laboratory animals. The aim of this study was to evaluate perlite as a bedding material for rodents and to compare it with wood shavings, expanded perlite and corncobs. The animals used in this experiment were 48 male and 48 female Sprague-Dawley rats. The bedding materials collected from experimental groups were analysed microbiologically. Blood samples from rats were subjected to biochemical analysis for catalase, glutathione, glutathione peroxidase, malondialdehyde, superoxide and dismutase, and foot pad skins of rats were subjected to histopathological examination. Body weight was determined at the end of the 30-day period. Perlite as the only bedding material had no effect on body weight, and it resulted in less microbial activity compared with the wood shavings, expanded perlite and corncobs. However, using perlite alone had negative effects on the skin, the moisture percentage of bedding and stress parameters. A wood shavingsperlite combination gave better results than perlite alone and appropriate perlite and other bedding material mixtures may result in bedding materials conducive to animal health and welfare. The frequency of changing the bedding material should be limited to once weekly.

Protothecae are algal pathogens, capable of causing bovine mastitis, that are unresponsive to treatment; they are believed to have an environmental reservoir. The role of bedding management in control of protothecal mastitis has not been studied. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the growth of either environmental or mastitis-associated Prototheca genotypes in dairy bedding materials that are commonly used in Maine. Prototheca zopfii genotypes 1 and 2 (gt1 and gt2) were inoculated into sterile broth only (control ), kiln-dried spruce shavings, "green" hemlock sawdust, sand, or processed manure-pack beddings with broth, and incubated for 2 d. Fifty microliters of each isolate was then cultured onto plates and the resulting colonies counted at 24 and 48 h postinoculation. Shavings were associated with significantly less total Prototheca growth than other bedding types. Growth of P. zopfii gt1 was significantly higher than that of gt2 in the manure-pack bedding material. Spruce shavings, compared with manure, sand, or sawdust, may be a good bedding type to prevent growth of Prototheca. Based on these in vitro findings, bedding type may affect Prototheca infection of cattle in vivo.

Several mastitis-causing pathogens are able to colonize the bovine teat canal. The objective of this study was to investigate the association between the treatment of sawdust bedding with a commercial alkaline conditioner and the bacterial counts on teat skin and in the teat canal. The study used a crossover design. Ten lactating Holstein cows that were free of udder infections and mastitis were included in the study. The animals were bedded on either untreated sawdust or sawdust that had been treated with a hydrated lime-based conditioner. Once a day, fresh bedding material was added. After 3 weeks, the bedding material was removed from the cubicles, fresh bedding material was provided, and the cows were rotated between the two bedding material groups. Teat skin and teat canals were sampled using the wet and dry swab technique after weeks 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus uberis, Escherichia coli and other coliform bacteria were detected in the resulting agar plate cultures. The treatment of the bedding material was associated with the teat skin bacterial counts of Str. uberis, Esch. coli and other coliform bacteria. An association was also found between the bedding material and the teat canal bacterial counts of coliform bacteria other than Esch. coli. For Staph. aureus, no associations with the bedding material were found. In general, the addition of a hydrated lime-based conditioner to sawdust reduces the population sizes of environmental pathogens on teat skin and in teat canals.

This study investigated the effects of a clay-based acidic bedding conditioner on sawdust bedding pH, dry matter (DM), environmental pathogen counts, and environmental bacterial counts on teat ends of lactating dairy cows. Sixteen lactating Holstein cows were paired based on parity, days in milk, milk yield, and milk somatic cell count, and were negative for the presence of an intramammary pathogen. Within each pair, cows were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 treatments with 3-wk periods in a crossover design. Treatment groups consisted of 9 freestalls per group bedded with either untreated sawdust or sawdust with a clay-based acidic bedding conditioner, added at 3- to 4-d intervals over each 21-d period. Bedding and teat ends were aseptically sampled on d 0, 1, 2, 7, 14, and 21 for determination of environmental bacterial counts. At the same time points, bedding was sampled for DM and pH determination. The bacteria identified in the bedding material were total gram-negative bacteria, Streptococcus spp., and coliform bacteria. The bacteria identified on the teat ends were Streptococcus spp., coliform bacteria, and Klebsiella spp. Teat end score, milk somatic cell count, and intramammary pathogen presence were measured weekly. Bedding and teat cleanliness, environmental high and low temperatures, and dew point data were collected daily. The bedding conditioner reduced the pH, but not the DM, of the sawdust bedding compared with untreated sawdust. Overall environmental bacterial counts in bedding were lower for treated sawdust. Total bacterial counts in bedding and on teat ends increased with time over both periods. Compared with untreated sawdust, the treated bedding had lower counts of total gram-negative bacteria and streptococci, but not coliform counts. Teat end bacterial counts were lower for cows bedded on treated sawdust for streptococci, coliforms, and Klebsiella spp. compared with cows bedded on untreated sawdust. The clay-based acidic bedding conditioner reduced environmental pathogens in sawdust bedding and teat ends without affecting teat end integrity.

Interest in using recycled manure solids (RMS) as a bedding material for dairy cows has grown in the US Midwest. Cost of common bedding materials has increased in recent years and availability has decreased. Information regarding the composition of RMS and its use as a bedding material for dairy cows in the Midwest is very limited. The objectives of this study were to characterize RMS as a bedding material, observe bedding management practices, document methods of obtaining RMS, and describe housing facilities. We visited 38 Midwest dairy operations bedding freestalls with RMS to collect data. Methods of obtaining RMS for bedding included separation of anaerobic digested manure, separation of raw manure, and separation of raw manure followed by mechanical drum-composting for 18 to 24 h. Average bedding moisture of unused RMS was 72.4% with a pH of 9.16. Unused samples contained (on a dry basis) 1.4% N, 44.9% C, 32.7C:N ratio, 0.44% P, 0.70% K, 76.5% neutral detergent fiber, 9.4% ash, 4.4% nonfiber carbohydrates, and 1.1% fat. Moisture was lowest for drum-composted solids before and after use as freestall bedding. After use in the stalls, digested solids had lower neutral detergent fiber content (70.5%) than drum-composted (75.0%) and separated raw (73.1%) solids. Total N content was greater in digested solids (2.0%) than in separated raw (1.7%) solids. Total bacterial populations in unused bedding were greatest in separated raw manure solids but were similar between digested and drum-composted manure solids. Drum-composted manure solids had no coliform bacteria before use as freestall bedding. After use as bedding, digested manure solids had lower total bacteria counts compared with drum-composted and separated raw manure solids, which had similar counts. Used bedding samples of digested solids contained fewer environmental streptococci than drum-composted and separated raw solids and had reduced Bacillus counts compared with separated raw solids. Coliform counts were similar for all 3 bedding sources. Addition of a mechanical blower post-separation and use of a shelter for storage were associated with reduced fresh-bedding moisture but not associated with bacterial counts. This was the first survey of herds using RMS for bedding in the Midwest. We learned that RMS was being used successfully as a source of bedding for dairy cows. For most farms in the study, somatic cell count was comparable to the average in the region and not excessively high.

The aim was to obtain data regarding the effects of 4 freestall bedding materials (i.e., box compost, sand, horse manure, and foam mattresses) on cow comfort and risks for lameness and mastitis. The comfort of freestalls was measured by analyzing the way cows entered the stalls, the duration and smoothness of the descent movement, and the duration of the lying bout. The cleanliness of the cows was evaluated on 3 different body parts: (1) udder, (2) flank, and (3) lower rear legs, and the bacteriological counts of the bedding materials were determined. The combination of the cleanliness of the cows and the bacteriological count of the bedding material provided an estimate of the risk to which dairy cows are exposed in terms of intramammary infections. The results of the hock assessment revealed that the percentage of cows with healthy hocks was lower (20.5 ± 6.7), the percentage of cows with both damaged and swollen hocks was higher (26.8 ± 3.2), and the severity of the damaged hock was higher (2.32 ± 0.17) on farms using foam mattresses compared with deep litter materials [i.e., box compost (64.0 ± 10.4, 3.5 ± 4.7, 1.85 ± 0.23, respectively), sand (54.6 ± 8.2, 2.0 ± 2.8, 1.91 ± 0.09, respectively), and horse manure (54.6 ± 4.5, 5.5 ± 5.4, 1.85 ± 0.17, respectively)]. In addition, cows needed more time to lie down (140.2 ± 84.2s) on farms using foam mattresses compared with the deep litter materials sand and horse manure (sand: 50.1 ± 31.6s, horse manure: 32.9 ± 0.8s). Furthermore, the duration of the lying bout was shorter (47.9 ± 7.4 min) on farms using foam mattresses compared to sand (92.0 ± 12.9 min). These results indicate that deep litter materials provide a more comfortable lying surface compared with foam mattresses. The 3 deep litter bedding materials differed in relation to each other in terms of comfort and their estimate of risk to which cows were exposed in terms of intramammary infections [box compost: 17.8 cfu (1.0(4)) ± 19.4/g; sand: 1.2 cfu (1.0(4)) ± 1.6/g; horse manure: 110.5 cfu (1.0(4)) ± 86.3/g]. Box compost had a low gram-negative bacterial count compared with horse manure, and was associated with less hock injury compared with foam mattresses, but did not improve lying behavior (lying descent duration: 75.6 ± 38.8s, lying bout duration: 46.1 ± 18.5 min). Overall, sand provided the best results, with a comfortable lying surface and a low bacterial count.

Rodent models are invaluable to understanding health and disease in many areas of biomedical research. Unfortunately, many models suffer from lack of phenotype reproducibility. Our laboratory has shown that differences in gut microbiota (GM) can modulate phenotypes of models of colon cancer and inflammatory bowel disease. We and others have also shown that a number of factors associated with rodent research, including vendor, cage system, and bedding can alter GM. The objective of this study was to expand these studies to examine the effect of additional bedding materials and methods of water decontamination on GM diversity and composition. To this end, Crl:CD1 (ICR) mice were housed on corn cob or compressed paper chip bedding and provided water that was decontaminated by four commonly used procedures: reverse osmosis, autoclaving, sulfuric acid treatment, or hydrochloric acid treatment. Feces was collected at day 0, and at day 28 (endpoint), fecal and cecal samples were collected. DNA was extracted from samples, amplified by PCR using conserved bacterial primer sets and subjected to next generation sequencing. Sequence data were analyzed using Qiime and groups were compared using principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) and permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA). Two factor PERMANOVA of cecal GM data revealed significant changes when comparing bedding and water decontamination methods, while no significant effects were noted in the fecal GM data. Subsequent PERMANOVA and PCoA of cecal data revealed that several combinations of bedding and water decontamination methods resulted in differing GM, highlighting the complexity by which environmental factors interact to modulate GM.

Granite fines, sand, rice hulls, long wheat straw, and wood shavings were compared as bedding for 60 female dairy calves. Growth, health, stress indices, and behavior of newly born calves, along with physical characteristics and bacterial counts of bedding, were evaluated for 42 d during August to October, 2002. Overall average daily gain and dry matter intake of calves did not differ due to bedding type, although during wk 2 calves housed on rice hulls had the greatest dry matter intake and those housed on wood shavings had the lowest. During wk 2, calves housed on granite fines and sand were treated more often for scours, and calves housed on long wheat straw received the fewest antibiotic treatments (week by bedding material interaction). Granite fines formed a harder surface than other bedding, and calves housed on granite fines scored the dirtiest. When bedding materials were evaluated, sand was scored to be the dirtiest, while pens bedded with rice hulls, long wheat straw, and wood shavings scored cleaner. Long wheat straw had the warmest surface temperature, and rice hulls and wood shavings were warmer than granite fines and sand. Serum cortisol, alpha(1)-acid glycoprotein, immunoglobulin G concentrations, and the neutrophil:lymphocyte ratio were not affected by bedding type. On d 0, coliform counts were greatest in rice hulls. After use, coliform counts were greatest in long wheat straw (week by bedding material interaction). On d 42, the concentration of ammonia at 10 cm above the bedding was lowest for long wheat straw. Growth performance of calves bedded for 42 d with 5 bedding types did not differ; however, the number of antibiotic treatments given for scours was greatest on granite fines and sand; coliform counts in the bedding were highest in rice hulls before use and in long wheat straw after 42 d of use.

To increase the understanding of how different factors affect the bacterial growth in deep sawdust beds for dairy cattle, the microbiological status of Bacillus cereus and coliforms in deep sawdust-bedded free stalls was investigated over two 14-d periods on one farm. High counts of B. cereus and coliforms were found in the entire beds. On average, 4.1 log(10) B. cereus spores, 5.5 log(10) B. cereus, and 6.7 log(10) coliforms per gram of bedding could be found in the upper layers of the sawdust likely to be in contact with the cows' udders. The highest counts of B. cereus spores, B. cereus, and coliforms were found in the bedding before fresh bedding was added, and the lowest immediately afterwards. Different factors of importance for the growth of B. cereus in the bedding material were explored in laboratory tests. These were found to be the type of bedding, pH, and the type and availability of nutrients. Alternative bedding material such as peat and mixtures of peat and sawdust inhibited the bacterial growth of B. cereus. The extent of growth of B. cereus in the sawdust was increased in a dose-dependent manner by the availability of feces. Urine added to different bedding material raised the pH and also led to bacterial growth of B. cereus in the peat. In sawdust, a dry matter content greater than 70% was needed to lower the water activity to 0.95, which is needed to inhibit the growth of B. cereus. In an attempt to reduce the bacterial growth of B. cereus and coliforms in deep sawdust beds on the farm, the effect of giving bedding daily or a full replacement of the beds was studied. The spore count of B. cereus in the back part of the free stalls before fresh bedding was added was 0.9 log units lower in stalls given daily bedding than in stalls given bedding twice weekly. No effect on coliform counts was found. Replacement of the entire sawdust bedding had an effect for a short period, but by 1 to 2 mo after replacement, the counts of B. cereus spores in the beds had increased about 2 log units and were as high as they were before bed replacement. Therefore, free-stall management could, to a limited extent, reduce the content of B. cereus spores in the beds by daily bedding and entire bed replacement.

It has long been known that the bedding type on which animals are housed can affect breeding behavior and cage environment, yet little is known about its effects on evoked behavior responses or nonreflexive behaviors. C57BL/6 mice were housed for 2 weeks on 1 of 5 bedding types: aspen Sani-Chips (standard bedding for our institute), ALPHA-Dri, Cellu-Dri, Pure-o’Cel, or TEK-Fresh. Mice housed on aspen exhibited the lowest (most sensitive) mechanical thresholds and those on TEK-Fresh exhibited 3-fold higher thresholds. Although bedding type had no effect on responses to punctate or dynamic light touch stimuli, TEK-Fresh-housed animals exhibited greater responsiveness in a noxious needle assay than did those housed on the other bedding types. Heat sensitivity was also affected by bedding because animals housed on aspen exhibited the shortest (most sensitive) latencies to withdrawal, whereas those housed on TEK-Fresh had the longest (least sensitive) latencies to response. Slight differences between bedding types were also seen in a moderate cold temperature preference assay. A modified tactile conditioned place preference chamber assay revealed that animals preferred TEK-Fresh to aspen bedding. Bedding type had no effect in a nonreflexive wheel running assay. In both acute (2 day) and chronic (5 week) inflammation induced by injection of complete Freund's adjuvant in the hindpaw, mechanical thresholds were reduced in all groups regardless of bedding type, but TEK-Fresh and Pure-o’Cel groups exhibited a greater dynamic range between controls and inflamed cohorts than aspen-housed mice. Perspective These findings indicate that the bedding type routinely used to house animals can markedly affect the dynamic range of mechanical and heat behavior assays under normal and tissue injury conditions. Among beddings tested, TEK-Fresh bedding resulted in the least sensitive baseline thresholds for mechanical and thermal stimuli and the greatest dynamic range after tissue injury. Therefore, selection of routine cage bedding material should be carefully considered for animals that will be tested in behavioral somatosensory assays.

This study aimed to determine whether Syrian (golden) hamsters, Mesocricetus auratus, prefer certain bedding materials and whether bedding material can affect paw condition, body weight gain and wheel-running activity. In a first experiment, 26 male hamsters had access to two connected cages, each cage containing a different bedding material (either pine shavings, aspen shavings, corn cob or wood pellets). In a second experiment, 14 male hamsters had access to four connected cages that contained the different bedding materials and also a piece of paper towel to serve as nest material. In a third experiment, 30 male hamsters were each placed in a single cage, 10 of them with pine shavings, 10 with aspen shavings and 10 with corn cob, and they were monitored for 50 days. Significant preferences in the first experiment were: pine shavings over aspen shavings, corn cob over wood pellets, pine shavings over corn cob and aspen shavings over wood pellets (aspen shavings versus corn cob was not tested). However, there was no significant preference expressed in the second experiment, suggesting that the general preference for shavings in the first experiment was based on bedding material suitability as a nesting material. No significant effect of bedding material on paw condition, body weight gain and wheel-running activity was detected. None of the four bedding materials tested in this study can be judged to be inappropriate in the short term if nesting material is added to the cage and if the litter is changed regularly.

Three experiments, which included 4 broiler flocks, were conducted to examine the usefulness of a novel bedding material for rearing broilers. The control bedding was pine shavings. The novel bedding, aGroChips (AC), was a chopped material made from cotton lint waste, gypsum, and old newsprint using a proprietary paper manufacturing process (Novovita, Inc., Raleigh, NC). All birds were fed the same feeding program: starter from 0 to 3 wk, grower from 3 to 5 or 6 wk, and finisher during the last week. Birds were marketed at either 6 or 7 wk of age. Feed consumption by pen and individual bird BW were measured at 3 and 6 or 7 wk. Mean BW and feed conversion, adjusted to include weight of mortality, were calculated. A sample of birds (n = 10) from each pen was evaluated for hock and foot pad condition. Each pen was evaluated at the end of the trial for litter cake index in 3 of the 4 flocks. Litter cake index scores were generally higher for birds reared on AC litters. There were no other differences in bird performance for any of the flocks. In conclusion, broilers reared on AC bedding perform as well as those reared on pine shavings.

In the wild, great apes sleep in beds they make by successively bending branches into an interwoven platform. These beds are functionally more closely related to human beds than they are to the nests and tree-holes used by other primate species. The idea that bed-building by great apes is learned behavior that is dependent on appropriate early experiences has been proposed but never fully tested. In the present study this hypothesis was indirectly tested in 73 captive adult chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes; 27 wild-born and 46 captive-born). Bed-building and use were tested experimentally by the introduction of three sets of bedding materials. Over 200 hr of scan-sampling data were collected during 45-min observations following introduction of the bedding material. The wild-born subjects built and used beds significantly more often than the captive-born subjects. Also, wild-born subjects used more complex techniques during construction. Captive-born subjects that were mother-reared through early adolescence spent more time building and using beds than their nursery-reared counterparts. These differences remained consistent even when previous adult experience with bedding (measured as naturalistic vs. traditional housing) was accounted for. These results suggest that bed-building is a learned behavior that requires early experience and practice for acquisition.

Dairy cattle barns are a major source of NH3 emissions to the atmosphere. Previous studies have shown that the bedding material used in the barn can influence the magnitude of NH3 emissions, but little is known about which bedding characteristics are important in this respect. The aims of this study were to assess, at a laboratory scale, the relative importance of the chemical [pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), C:N] and physical (urine absorbance capacity, bulk density) characteristics of 5 bedding materials (chopped wheat straw, sand, pine shavings, chopped newspaper, chopped corn stalks, and recycled manure solids) on NH3 emissions from dairy cattle urine. Recycled manure solids were the most absorbent of the bedding types (4.2 g of urine/g of bedding), and sand was the least (0.3 g of urine/g of bedding). When beddings were soaked in urine to their absorbance capacities, NH3 emissions over 48 h (expressed as a proportion of the urine N absorbed) were not significantly different among bedding types, despite differences in initial bedding pH, CEC, and C:N. When equal volumes of urine were applied to equal depths of dry bedding, NH3 emissions over 48 h were significantly less from sand and pine shavings (23 and 42% of applied urine N, respectively) than from chopped newspaper, chopped corn stalks, and recycled manure solids (62, 68, and 65% of applied urine N, respectively), whereas emissions from chopped wheat straw (55% applied urine N) only differed significantly from that from sand. Differences in the chemical characteristics of the beddings did not explain differences in emission; NH3 emissions increased linearly with CEC contrary to expectations, and there was no significant relationship with initial bedding pH. The physical characteristics of bedding materials were of more importance, as NH3 emissions increased linearly with absorbance capacity and decreased as the bulk density of the packed beddings increased.

Farm management practices that reduce the prevalence of food-borne pathogens in live animals are predicted to enhance food safety. To ascertain the potential role of livestock bedding in the ecology and epidemiology of Escherichia coli O157:H7 on farms, the survival of this pathogen in used-sand and used-sawdust dairy cow bedding was determined. Additionally, a longitudinal study of mature dairy cattle housed on 20 commercial dairy farms was conducted to compare the prevalence of E. coli O157:H7 in cattle bedded on sand to that in cattle bedded on sawdust. E. coli O157:H7 persisted at higher concentrations in used-sawdust bedding than in used-sand bedding. The overall average herd level prevalence (3.1 versus 1.4%) and the number of sample days yielding any tests of feces positive for E. coli O157:H7 (22 of 60 days versus 13 of 60 days) were higher in sawdust-bedded herds. The choice of bedding material used to house mature dairy cows may impact the prevalence of E. coli O157:H7 on dairy farms.

It has long been known that there are numerous genetic and environmental factors that affect the in vivo research of neuropathic pain. In this letter, we describe the impact that bedding material can have on the development of neuropathic pain behaviors in rodents. In two models of neuropathic pain, the Chronic Constriction Injury (CCI) and the partial axotomy, we demonstrated that features of the sawdust on which the animals are housed during experimentation have a clear effect on the development of mechanical hyperalgesia and chemical hypersensitivity. Rats housed on coarse sawdust presented with a much-reduced response to a pinprick and acetone test compared to counterparts housed on fine sawdust. It is therefore concluded that the development of specific stimulus modalities of neuropathic pain behavior following peripheral nerve injury can be influenced in part by environmental factors, in this case bedding texture.

In work environments with laboratory animals, the bedding of animals binds the excreta as well as other compounds originating from the animals and their environment. These may be generated into the ambient air when the personnel handle bedding in different procedures. This study compares the dustiness of different types of six clean and four soiled beddings from rat or mouse cages. The dust generation of clean bedding varied from 3. When used in the cages of rats or mice for 4 days, the dust concentration of the beddings decreased, increased or stayed the same, depending on the type of bedding and animal species. A decrease in dustiness was, however, more common. The levels in the soiled beddings varied from 3. In the case of the aspen chip bedding, the contents of bedding used in mouse, rat or rabbit cages were analysed for mesophilic bacteria and fungi, mycobacteria and endotoxins. All of these contaminants were variably found in the bedding samples, the maximal concentrations for bacteria were >6 500 000 colony-forming units (cfu)/g, for fungi 212 000 cfu/g, and for endotoxins 6500 ng/g (81 000 EU/g). The results showed that the bedding of laboratory animals may contain biologically effective compounds, and that these may be distributed into the ambient air depending on the characteristics of the bedding material. The dustiness of different bedding types is an important factor affecting the amount and quality of the occupational exposure of the personnel to airborne contaminants.

The preference of guinea pigs for bedding materials, wood shavings (WS) or paper cutting sheets (PS), was studied. Animals aged 8 weeks and 20 weeks showed a similar behaviour pattern during 30 min in the light, preferring WS to PS regardless of ages. Over both light and dark periods for 24 h, guinea pigs apparently preferred WS in the light, spending much more time resting in them than in PS. In the dark, the border-crossing was significantly more frequent than in the light, and the staying time was rather longer in PS than WS. The results suggest that guinea pigs prefer different bedding materials under light and dark conditions.

In order to identify indicators of the preferences for bedding materials, the paper bedding material preferences of laboratory mice were investigated in the present study. Four cages, each containing a different structure of paper bedding material were connected to allow free access to each cage. The preferences for paper bedding materials of laboratory mice were judged by the differences in the length of stay and sleep in each cage. The mice preferred the bedding material that allowed them to easily hide and build nests and was soft. We conclude that the comfort and well-being of laboratory mice can be increased through the appropriate selection of bedding material.

The choice of laboratory cage bedding material is often based on both practical and husbandry issues, whereas behavioral outcomes rarely appear to be considered. It has been noted that a breeding success difference appears to be associated with the differential use of aspen chip and aspen shaving bedding in our facility; therefore, we sought to analyze breeding records maintained over a 20-month period. In fact, in all four mouse strains analyzed, shaving bedding was associated with a significant increase in average weanlings per litter relative to chip bedding. To determine whether these bedding types also resulted in differences in behaviors associated with wellbeing, we examined nest building, anxiety-like, depressive-like (or helpless-like), and social behavior in mice housed on chip versus shaving bedding. We found differences in the nests built, but no overall effect of bedding type on the other behaviors examined. Therefore, we argue that breeding success, perhaps especially in more challenging strains, is improved on shaving bedding and this is likely due to improved nest-building potential. For standard laboratory practices, however, these bedding types appear equivalent.

Cooling systems used to reduce heat stress in dairy operations require high energy, water usage, or both. Steady increases in electricity costs and reduction of water availability and an increase in water usage regulations require evaluation of passive cooling systems to cool cows and reduce use of water and electricity. A study was conducted to evaluate the use of heat exchangers buried 25 cm below the surface as components in a conductive system for cooling cows. Six cows were housed in environmentally controlled rooms with tie-stall beds, which were equipped with a heat exchanger and filled with 25 cm of either sand or dried manure. Beds were connected to supply and return lines and individually controlled. Two beds (one per each kind of bedding material) constituted a control group (water off), and the other 4 (2 sand and 2 dried manure) used water at 7°C passing through the heat exchangers (water on). The experiment was divided in 2 periods of 40 d, and each period involved 3 repetitions of 3 different climates (hot and dry, thermo neutral, and hot and humid). Each cow was randomly assigned to a different treatment after each repetition was over. Sand bedding remained cooler than dried manure bedding in all environments and at all levels of cooling (water on or off). Bed temperatures were lower and heat flux higher during the bed treatment with sand and water on. We also detected a reduction in core body temperatures, respiration rates, rectal temperatures, and skin temperatures of those cows during the sand and water on treatment. Feed intake and milk yield numerically increased during the bed treatment with sand and water on for all climates. No major changes were observed in the lying time of cows or the composition of the milk produced. We conclude that use of heat exchangers is a viable adjunct to systems that employ fans, misters, and evaporative cooling methods to mitigate effects of heat stress on dairy cows. Sand was superior to dried manure as a bedding material in combination with heat exchangers.

Because of continuing concerns about the safety and the suitability of recycled newspaper as an animal bedding material, municipal curbside-collected newspaper was processed into chopped and pelleted forms for comparison studies with wheat straw and kiln-dried pinewood shavings. Measurements included nutrient, heavy metal, dioxin and furan content, particle size distribution, density, combustion potential, and water-holding capacity. Recycled newspaper, straw, and wood shavings tested below or equivalent to National Research Council dietary tolerance levels and US Environmental Protection Agency toxic equivalent levels. Small particle size distribution was shavings > straw > all forms of newspaper. The density of pelleted newspaper was 50-fold greater than that of chopped newspaper and straw and 15-fold greater than shavings. In simulated flash burns, chopped newspaper, straw, and shavings ignited, and flames spread rapidly in newspaper and shavings and lasted the longest in shavings. Pelleted newspaper did not ignite. Chopped and pelleted forms of newspaper and wood shavings had higher water holding capacities (>400%) than did straw (200%). Animal industries can, in confidence, utilize recycled newspaper as an animal bedding material, providing that sources of low toxicity are identified, and suitable processed forms are produced.

The present paper describes two experiments in which preferences of laboratory mice for materials which could serve as cage enrichment were investigated. In the first experiment, presence of nesting material (paper towel or tissue) and the presence of a nest box (perforated metal or clear perspex box) were tested against each other. On average, the 47 mice tested spent significantly more time in the cage with the nesting material (more than 69% of their total time, whereas less than 25% of their time in the cage with the nest box). In the second experiment,the preferred nesting material (tissues) was placed in a cage with a grid floor (previously found to be avoided) and the nest box (perforated metal) was placed in another cage, connected to the first, with a solid floor covered with sawdust bedding material. In this experiment, 24 female mice were tested and on average they spent more than 67% of their time in the cage with the nesting material, despite the presence of a grid floor. Thus, it is concluded that providing a cage with nesting material (in addition to bedding) may be essential for the well-being of laboratory mice. (C) 1998 Elsevier Science B.V.

Healthy pigs can carry Salmonella in their intestine and may shed this pathogen because of stresses incurred during transportation, contaminating trailer floors and bedding material. If not cleaned and sanitized between trips, trailers and bedding have the potential to infect other farms, the abattoir environment, or other animals with Salmonella. Floors and bedding material from pig trailers were sampled to determine the efficacy of the abattoir-developed washing and sanitizing regime on the level of Salmonella before and after a single haul. Escherichia coli levels were an indicator of high contamination. The study also determined the effect of ambient temperature (during four seasons) and of the distance the pigs traveled in the haulers (500 miles or500 miles) on bacterial levels. Salmonella was isolated from 80% of the bedding material tested. Of the 188 floor samples taken, 41.5% were positive for Salmonella before washing, and 2.7% were positive after washing and sanitizing. E. coli was isolated from all bedding material and floor samples before washing, but washing and sanitizing significantly decreased levels (P0.05) by 2 logs. There was no significant difference (P0.05) in the number of Salmonella- or E. coli-positive trailers attributable to distance traveled or season of the year. These results demonstrate that washing and sanitizing the trailers after each load significantly reduced levels of Salmonella and its possible spread by the contaminated trailer and bedding, which ultimately could promote improvement in food safety.

Milk products from small dairies are increasingly in demand, as access to pasture provides benefits to the cow, consumer, and environment. The productivity and profitability of small dairy farms particularly rely on the prevention of infectious diseases. Cattle on seasonal grazing dairies live primarily outdoors until inclement weather warrants relocation indoors. While shifts in the amounts of bacteria associated with livestock may be expected from this transition, potentially increasing risks for infectious diseases, changes in bacteria levels on cows relocated to indoor facilities have not been well-studied. In addition, the optimal use of bedding materials and iodine are critical in bovine infectious diseases prevention. However, the antibacterial potential of bedding material with high polyphenol content or low concentrations of iodine, are poorly understood. Cow teats were swabbed and total bacteria and coliform counts, as well as extracellular enzyme activities (EEA) were utilized to assess shifts in bacterial levels on cows at pasture and then housed indoors. To test the antibacterial efficacy of bedding materials, as well as low concentrations of povidone-iodine, growth curves with laboratory strains of Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae, as well as S. aureus isolated from a dairy farm, were performed with three concentrations of red cedar shavings or iodine. Post hoc multiple comparisons indicated that total bacteria, coliform, and β-galactosidase activities were significantly greater among cows housed indoors compared to bacterial samples from cows at pasture. Laboratory strains of S. aureus, but not K. pneumoniae, were significantly inhibited by moderate and high treatments of red cedar shavings, while S. aureus isolated from a dairy were inhibited by the high treatment only. All low iodine concentrations significantly inhibited each bacterial strain investigated. These results may help optimize strategies for the prevention of infectious diseases of bovine udders critical to the productivity and profitability of small dairies.

Diverse environments early in mammalian life can have profound influences on the physiology and behavior of developing offspring. Environmental factors can influence offspring development directly or through perturbations in parental care. In the current study, we wished to determine if the influence of a single environmental variable, type of bedding material used in laboratory cages, is capable of altering physiological and behavioral outcomes in offspring. Female rats were housed in cages containing wood pulp or corncob bedding and allowed to mature. These rats, while housed on assigned bedding material, were bred and allowed to give birth. At weaning, male offspring were housed on one of the two bedding conditions and tested later in adulthood on stress-sensitive behavioral measures. Postmortem analysis of glucocorticoid receptor expression and CRH mRNA levels were also measured. Maternal care directed at the pups reared in the two different bedding conditions was also recorded. Rats reared from birth on corncob bedding exhibited decreased anxiety-like behavior, as adults, in both open field and light-dark box tasks compared to wood pulp reared animals. Animals that received similar overall levels of maternal care, regardless of bedding condition, also differed in anxiety-like behaviors as adults, indicating that the bedding condition is capable of altering phenotype independent of maternal care. Despite observed behavioral differences in adult offspring reared in different bedding conditions, no changes in glucocorticoid receptor expression at the level of the hippocampus, frontal cortex, or corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) mRNA expression in the hypothalamus were observed between groups. These results highlight the importance of early life housing variables in programming stress-sensitive behaviors in adult offspring. © 2013.

Preferences for different housing conditions in mice were evaluated by radiotelemetry. Male C57BL/6J and ICR mice were used. Preference for bedding materials in mice was compared among three materials, wood shavings (WS), paper (CF) and cloth (AG), using the length of stay in cages as a parameter. The results indicated that mice stayed longer in a cage with AG than in cages with other bedding materials. The present study confirmed our previous results and thereby indicated that radiotelemetry is a useful method to evaluate impacts of housing conditions on animal welfare. In the second part of this study, we used radiotelemetry to evaluate color preference of the mice for cloth bedding material. In C57BL/6J mice, staying time in black cloth was significantly longer than that in white cloth. In ICR mice, staying time in white cloth was significantly longer than that in black cloth. The mice preferred the environment with the same color as their fur, which may be important for animal welfare.

Negative impacts on the environment, bird well-being, and farm worker health indicate the need for abatement strategies for poultry litter NH(3) generation. Type of bedding affects many parameters related to poultry production including NH(3) losses. In a randomized complete block design, 3 trials compared the cumulative NH(3) volatilization for laboratory-prepared litter (4 bedding types mixed with excreta) and commercial litter (sampled from a broiler house during the second flock on reused pine wood chips). Litters were assessed at the original moisture content and 2 higher moisture contents. Broiler excrement was mixed with pine wood shavings, rice hulls, sand, and vermiculite to create litter samples. Volumetrically uniform litter samples were placed in chambers receiving humidified air where the exhaust passed through H(3)BO(3) solution, trapping litter-emitted NH(3). At the original moisture content, sand and vermiculite litters generated the most NH(3) (5.3 and 9.1 mg of N, respectively) whereas wood shavings, commercial, and rice hull litters emitted the least NH(3) (0.9-2.6 mg of N). For reducing NH(3) emissions, the results support recommendations for using wood shavings and rice hulls, already popular bedding choices in the United States and worldwide. In this research, the organic bedding materials generated the least NH(3) at the original moisture content when compared with the inorganic materials. For each bedding type, incremental increases in litter moisture content increased NH(3) volatilization. However, the effects of bedding material on NH(3) volatilization at the increased moisture levels were not clearly differentiated across the treatments. Vermiculite generated the most NH(3) (26.3 mg of N) at the highest moisture content. Vermiculite was a novel bedding choice that has a high water absorption capacity, but because of high NH(3) generation, it is not recommended for further study as broiler bedding material. Controlling unnecessary moisture inputs to broiler litter is a key to controlling NH(3) emissions.

Sand bedding material is frequently used in dairy operations to reduce the occurrence of mastitis and enhance cow comfort. One objective of this work was to determine if sand-based bedding also supported the microbiologically based suppression of an introduced bacterial pathogen. Bedding samples were collected in summer, fall, and winter from various locations within a dairy operation and tested for their ability to suppress introduced populations of Escherichia coli O157:H7. All sources of bedding displayed a heat-sensitive suppressiveness to the pathogen. Differences in suppressiveness were also noted between different samples at room temperature. At just 1 day postinoculation (dpi), the recycled sand bedding catalyzed up to a 1,000-fold reduction in E. coli counts, typically 10-fold greater than the reduction achieved with other substrates, depending on the sampling date. All bedding substrates were able to reduce E. coli populations by over 10,000-fold within 7 to 15 dpi, regardless of sampling date. Terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) analysis was used to identify bacterial populations potentially associated with the noted suppression of E. coli O157:H7 in sand bedding. Eleven terminal restriction fragments (TRFs) were overrepresented in paired comparisons of suppressive and nonsuppressive specimens at multiple sampling points, indicating that they may represent environmentally stable populations of pathogen-suppressing bacteria. Cloning and sequencing of these TRFs indicated that they represent a diverse subset of bacteria, belonging to the Cytophaga-Flexibacter-Bacteroidetes , Gammaproteobacteria , and Firmicutes , only a few of which have previously been identified in livestock manure. Such data indicate that microbial suppression may be harnessed to develop new options for mitigating the risk and dispersal of zoonotic bacterial pathogens on dairy farms.