Search

Background: Approximately one-third of Asian elephants are managed under human care, participating in educational, cultural, religious, and tourist activities. Management conditions vary considerably among venues, raising questions about whether welfare needs are consistently being met, particularly for Asian tourist camp elephants. To evaluate the well-being of elephants engaged in tourist activities, an evidence-based tool is needed for routine assessments to identify potential welfare risks, aid in the development of better camp standards, and enable caretakers to address specific concerns. While many animal welfare tools exist, none have been designed to consider specific environments and management practices faced by elephants living and working in tourist camps., Methods: Using direct observations and interviews, the Elephant Welfare Assessment Tool (EWAT) was developed for tourist camp elephants using the Five Domains Model as a framework. Measures were selected based on peer-reviewed literature, existing standards and guidelines, and opinions from animal welfare experts working with zoo and tourist camp elephants. The EWAT differs from existing tools by including criteria on work activities and restraint methods ( e.g ., chaining and ankus use), factors common in Asia but not often encountered by western zoo elephants. Measures were scored using a 0-2 Likert Scale. The tool was tested in Thailand and determined by calculating a content validity index (CVI) and conducting inter-rater and test-retest reliability tests., Results: The initial tool included 18 animal-based and 21 resource-based measures across four domains: Nutrition ( n = 5), Environment ( n = 14), Health ( n = 10), and Behavior and Mental State ( n = 10). Index scores of content validity (CVI) (Item CVI (0.83), Scale CVI/Average (0.98), and Scale CVI/Universal (0.89)) were high. Measures scoring less than 0.83 were removed: the opportunity to mate, the mahout-elephant relationship, and mahout job satisfaction. The final tool consisted of 42 questions related to 36 measures, including 18 animal-based and 18 resource-based measures within the Nutrition ( n = 5), Environment ( n = 11), Health ( n = 10), and Behavior and Mental State ( n = 10) domains. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) for inter-rater reliability (0.78-0.90, p < 0.05) and test-retest (0.77-0.91, p < 0.05) analyses conducted at two camps showed good agreement., Conclusions: This new assessment tool (EWAT) is a context-specific, holistic method designed to offer a practical means of conducting individual and institutional-level assessments of elephant welfare in tourist camps. It is based on the Five Domains Model using reliable and validated animal- and resource-based measures, data collection through direct observation and interviews, and a numerical scoring system. The tool includes several criteria applicable to tourist rather than zoo venues to make it more relevant to the challenges faced by working elephants in Asia., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests., (© 2024 Ghimire et al.)

Elephant tourism in Thailand has developed into an important socio-economic factor after a logging ban initiated in 1989 resulted in thousands of out-of-work elephants. However, the welfare of captive elephants has been a topic of intense debate among tourists, scientists and stakeholders because of the range of working conditions and management practices to which they are exposed. The aim of this paper is to summarize the current state of knowledge on captive elephant welfare, with an emphasis on tourist elephants in Thailand, and highlight information gaps and recommendations for future directions. Tourist-oriented elephant camps could improve the welfare of elephants through better management practices that take into account physiological and psychological needs of individual animals, including meeting social and nutritional requirements, providing good health care, and maintaining adequate facilities. Our goal is to develop science-based guidelines that government agencies can use to develop an enforceable set of practical regulations to ensure good management of tourist elephants in Thailand.

This study investigated how camp management and tourist activities affect body condition, adrenocortical function, lipid profiles and metabolic status in female tourist elephants. We compared twice monthly serum insulin, glucose, fructosamine, total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), low density lipoprotein (LDL), high density lipoprotein (HDL), and fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations to body condition scores (BCS) at five camps with different management styles (e.g., tourist activities, work type, diet) between the High (November-February) and Low (March-October) tourist seasons. There were significant camp effects on health parameters, with BCS, TC, HDL, insulin and glucose being among the highest, and G:I being the lowest (less heathy) in elephants at an observation camp compared to those at camps where elephants received exercise by providing rides to tourists. Differences between High and Low tourist season months also were found for all measures, except TG and FGM concentrations. Both work time and walking distance were negatively correlated to glucose, fructosamine and insulin, while walking distance was negatively related to FGM concentrations. By contrast, positive associations were found between tourist number and BCS, TG, and insulin, perhaps related to tourists feeding elephants. Quantity of supplementary diet items (e.g., bananas, sugar cane, pumpkin) were positively correlated with FGM concentrations, glucose, fructosamine, and insulin. This study provides evidence that body condition, adrenal activity, metabolic markers, and lipid profiles in captive elephants may be affected by visitor numbers, work activities, and the amount of supplementary foods offered by tourists. Some activities appear to have negative (e.g., feeding), while others (e.g., exercise) may have positive effects on health and welfare. We conclude that camps adopting a more hands-off approach to tourism need to ensure elephants remain healthy by providing environments that encourage activity and rely on more natural diets or foraging., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Elephant camps are among the most popular destinations in Thailand for tourists from many countries. A wide range of management strategies are used by these camps, which can have varied impacts on health and welfare of elephants. The objectives of this study were to examine relationships between FGM (fecal glucocorticoid metabolite) concentrations and camp management factors (work routine, walking, restraint, rest area, foraging), and to other welfare indicators (stereotypic behaviors, body condition, foot health, and skin wounds). Data were obtained on 84 elephants (18 males and 66 females) from 15 elephant camps over a 1-year period. Elephants were examined every 3 months and assigned a body condition score, foot score, and wound score. Fecal samples were collected twice monthly for FGM analysis. Contrary to some beliefs, elephants in the observation only program where mahouts did not carry an ankus for protection had higher FGM concentrations compared to those at camps that offered riding with a saddle and shows. Elephants that were tethered in the forest at night had lower FGM concentrations compared to elephants that were kept in open areas inside the camps. There was an inverse relationship between FGM concentrations and occurrence of stereotypy, which was not anticipated. Thus, assessing adrenal activity via monitoring of FGM concentrations can provide important information on factors affecting the well-being of elephants. Results suggest that more naturalistic housing conditions and providing opportunities to exercise may be good for elephants under human care in Thailand, and that a no riding, no hook policy does not necessarily guarantee good welfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: There is considerable concern about the welfare of elephants used for education, research, and entertainment purposes in western zoos and Asian tourist camps, and whether captive venues meet the needs of these highly social and intelligent animals. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies to determine how factors in the captive environment affect animal welfare both positively and negatively. The use of multi-disciplinary approaches to assess welfare has aided improvements in the management of captive elephants in North American zoos and Thailand tourist camps. In this paper, we review the most recent findings of our elephant studies that, using similar methodologies, highlight the importance of proper diets, adequate exercise, natural and stimulating environments, and freedom of movement to welfare. Overall, we found a number of commonalities in how environmental factors affect biological function of elephants managed under vastly different conditions. This type of integrative information is important for establishing welfare guidelines to ensure healthy, sustainable global populations of captive elephants. This review paper is a synthesis of results from multiple studies that we have conducted over the past several years using similar methodologies to identify factors related to welfare of captive populations of elephants in North American zoos and Thailand tourist camps. Using multiple conservation physiology tools, we found that, despite vastly disparate management systems, there are commonalities in how environmental and husbandry factors affect physical and physiological outcomes. Elephants appear to have better welfare, based on fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) analyses, when housed under conditions that provide a more enriched, stimulating, and less restrictive environment. We also found it is essential to balance diet and exercise for good body condition and metabolic function. In Thailand, use of tools to control elephants, such as the ankus (i.e., guide, hook) and chains, did not equate to poor welfare per se, nor did riding; however, improper uses were associated with higher wound scores and FGM concentrations. Foot health was good overall in both regions, with cracks being the most common problem, and better foot scores were found in elephants kept on softer substrates. Based on these findings, science-based guidelines are being developed in Thailand, while in North America, changes are being incorporated into elephant standards and husbandry resource guides. Management across venues can be improved by encouraging elephant exploration and exercise, establishing socially compatibility groups, ensuring proper use of tools, and providing balanced diets. We contend there is no "one-size-fits-all" management strategy to guarantee good welfare for elephants, but there are essential needs that must be met regardless of where or how they are managed. Future studies are needed to find ways to better socialize elephants; determine how temperament affects coping styles and resilience; study the importance of good handler-elephant relationships; identify more ways for elephants to engage with the environment; and assess the effect of life history on subsequent physiological and psychological well-being. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]