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There is little information on permanent effects of nutritional manipulation of Angora does on the development of skin follicles of their progeny in utero and during the early postnatal period. This report investigates the combined effects of 3 levels of mid pregnancy nutrition (MPN) × 2 levels of postnatal nutrition during lactation (PNN) on skin follicle development and the subsequent physical properties and value of mohair until 19 months of age. Does were housed in individual pens in an outdoor feedlot from day 47 of pregnancy until 13 weeks postpartum. Kids grazed pasture following weaning at 16 weeks. MPN treatments commenced from day 47 as follows: Control (C), does fed to lose live weight (−67 g/d); Maintenance (M), does fed to maintain live weight; Supplemented (S), does fed to gain live weight at 102 g/d. From days 105 of pregnancy until 4 days postpartum the feeding level was ad libitum for all treatments. From 4 days postpartum PNN treatments were: ad libitum (AL) to allow maximum ME intake resulting in doe live weight gain throughout lactation; Restricted (R) to 70% of AL, resulting in doe live weight loss until week 10 of lactation. Kid skin biopsy samples were taken at birth, 114, 180 and 420 days of age. Fleeces were harvested at 7, 13 and 19 months of age and tested for physical properties. Commercial value of mohair was determined using known price discount responses and measured mean fibre diameter (MFD). Improving MPN increased kid live weight up to 6 months of age. Improving PNN increased kid live weight between 1–6 months of age. The ratio of secondary to primary skin follicles increased from 2.56 ± 0.83 at birth to 9.32 ± 1.41 at 4 months of age. The density of secondary follicles, total secondary follicle number and ratio of secondary to primary follicles were affected by significant interactions between MPN and PNN, with treatments S-AL, C-AL and M-R being higher than other treatments. Improving PNN increased total greasy and clean mohair production by 5%. Average MFD was affected by interactions between MPN and PNN, with treatment S-AL having mohair 1.8 μm finer than S-R and C-AL. Improving both MPN and PNN reduced lifetime MFD. Staple length was affected by interactions between MPN and PNN, treatments with the finest mohair having shorter staples. The first fleece weight was affected by birth parity and sex of progeny, but not subsequent fleeces. The MFD of the second and third fleeces for female kids were 0.9–2.2 μm coarser compared with male kid fleeces. Interactions between MPN and PNN affected lifetime fleece value with S-AL producing 20% higher value fleeces compared with other treatments. There are preferred nutritional combinations for breeding Angora does which permanently increase the skin follicle population and consequently improve the lifetime physical properties and value of the mohair grown by their progeny.

Objective To assess the effectiveness of controlled-release devices (CRDs) for providing zinc and for estimating faecal output in alpacas and sheep at pasture. Methods The study groups of 10 alpacas and 10 sheep at pasture were paired within species and allocated at random to receive by mouth either one CRD containing chromium sesquioxide designed to function for at least 21 days or two CRDs, one containing chromium sesquioxide and the other zinc oxide designed to release over a nominal 60-day period. Faecal concentrations of chromium, zinc and ash, blood and plasma concentrations of zinc and plasma activity of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were measured over a period of 117 days after treatment. Results The mean faecal chromium excretion profiles suggested that the CRDs performed in a similar manner in both species, releasing chromium for nearly 30 days in alpacas and for slightly more than 30 days in sheep. Using a common predetermined release rate of chromium from the CRDs, the daily faecal outputs of alpacas and sheep were estimated to be 0.54 kg dry matter and 0.33 kg dry matter, respectively. The CRD containing zinc oxide provided after 1 week an estimated daily release rate of 40 mg zinc with a lifetime of between 60 and 70 days in both species. The additional zinc did not elicit a response in blood zinc concentrations or in plasma ALP activity. Conclusion The CRDs were retained in the gastrointestinal tracts of the alpacas and sheep and both types functioned as expected. The CRD delivering chromium sesquioxide at a known release rate provided an estimate of faecal dry matter output over a period of almost 3 weeks and the CRD formulated to deliver supplementary zinc did so at the nominal release rate over a period of approximately 60 days in both species. These data indicated that the standard sheep CRD is applicable for use in alpacas.

Australian research on the influence of the rate of stocking on pasture, animal and mohair growth, parasitism, mortality, and other nutritional and husbandry requirements are reviewed. Liveweight of Angora goats is the main determinant of clean mohair production, fibre diameter and meat production, but not of staple length. Both liveweight and fibre diameter are determinants of the incidence of medullated fibre. Changing the frequency of shearing affects all mohair fleece attributes. Body condition is highly correlated to the liveweight of Angora goats, to welfare risk and carcass production. The profitability of mohair enterprises declined as the proportion of does in the flock increased, associated with a decline in mohair quality. Efforts to improve mohair quality and enterprise financial returns need to focus on producing finer mohair.

Recommendations for the nutrient management of lactating Angora goats are mostly based on theoretical calculations as little empirical data is available. This report investigates the combined effects of 3 levels of mid pregnancy nutrition (MPN) × 2 levels of postnatal nutrition during lactation (PNN) providing 6 nutrition patterns, with both single and twin bearing does, on milk production and composition and energy requirements for milk production. Following artificial insemination and pregnancy scanning, does were fed pelleted rations in individual pens in an outdoor feedlot from day 47 of pregnancy until 13 weeks postpartum. MPN treatments commenced from day 47 as follows: Control (C), fed to lose live weight (−67 g/d); Maintenance (M), does fed to maintain live weight; Supplemented (S), does fed to gain live weight at 102 g/d. From days 105 of pregnancy until 4 days postpartum the feeding level was ad libitum for all treatments. From 4 days postpartum PNN treatments were: ad libitum (AL) to allow maximum ME intake resulting in live weight gain throughout lactation; Restricted (R) to 70% of AL, resulting in live weight loss until week 10 of lactation. MPN had no effects on milk production. Milk production was affected by PNN and parity at days 21 and 42 of lactation but not at day 90. R fed does secreted 21% less milk at day 21 of lactation (1.75 vs. 1.38 kg) and 29% less at day 42 of lactation (1.74 vs. 1.24 kg) compared with AL fed does. Milk production corrected to 4% fat exceeded 2.8 kg/d until day 42 of lactation in AL fed does. Both MPN and PNN affected the concentration of milk solids. MPN had no effect on secretion of milk solids. PNN affected total secretion of milk fat, protein, lactose and total solids at days 21 and 42, with AL fed does producing more than R fed does. Both MPN and PNN had separate independent effects on NEl. For MPN, S fed does had milk with higher NEl than that of M and C fed does (C, 5.256; M, 5.320; S, 5.683 MJ/kg; P

There is little research on the nutrient requirements and the effects of nutrient manipulation on the productivity of lactating Angora does. The study design investigated the combined effects of 3 levels of mid pregnancy nutrition (MPN) × 2 levels of postnatal nutrition during lactation (PNN) with both single and twin bearing does, providing 6 nutrition patterns. Following artificial insemination and pregnancy scanning, does were fed pelleted rations in individual pens in an outdoor feedlot from day 47 of pregnancy until 13 weeks following kidding. MPN treatments commenced from day 47 as follows: Control (C), fed to lose live weight (–67 g/day); Maintenance (M), does fed to maintain live weight; Supplemented (S), does fed to gain live weight at 102 g/day. From days 105 of pregnancy until 4 days postpartum the feeding level was ad libitum for all treatments. From 4 days postpartum PNN treatments were: ad libitum (AL) to allow maximum ME intake; Restricted (R) to 70% of AL. This report is concerned with the responses from kidding to weaning for energy intake, live weight, body condition score (BSC) and mohair production. In AL treatments, maximum ME intake was reached during weeks 5–10 of lactation as follows: twin rearing does 3.88 × maintenance; single rearing does 3.25 × maintenance. No interaction occurred between MPN and PNN in affecting doe live weight. PNN significantly affected doe live weight from week 2 until weaning with AL does gaining 97 g/day from kidding to week 5 and thereafter 28 g/day. R fed does lost 40 g/day from kidding to week 10 and thereafter gained 38 g/day. By week 4 of lactation twin rearing does were 4 kg lighter than single rearing does. The change in BCS from just prior to kidding to day 90 of lactation was affected by an interaction between MPN and PNN. BSC of does fed M-R and S-R declined to a greater extent than does fed C-R, while the BCS for C-AL and M-AL increased to that of S-AL, which had remained constant at a high BCS. By day 21 of lactation the effects of PNN were significant, with AL does having significantly higher BCS than R does and the differences increased as lactation progressed. The BCS of single rearing does fed AL increased progressively, while the BCS of all other does declined. By the end of lactation, R does had significantly lower BCS than twin rearing does fed AL, which in turn had a significantly lower BCS compared with single rearing AL fed does. Significant interactions between MPN and PNN affected mohair growth, clean washing yield, mohair fibre diameter, incidence of medullated non kemp fibres and staple length. For fleece weight, S-AL and M-AL had heavier greasy and clean fleece weight compared with S-R and M-R with the other treatments intermediate. Similarly, the mean fibre diameter of S-AL was 2.4 μm coarser than that of M-R, with other treatments being intermediate. For both greasy and clean fleece weight, twin rearing does produced 14% less mohair than single rearing does. For R fed twin rearing does, the mohair had greater fibre diameter variability compared with other does. Overall, PNN had a greater number of and larger effects on measured parameters than MPN. Restricting nutrition in lactation was shown to depress doe live weight, BCS and the growth of mohair. Lactating Angora does rapidly changed their live weight and BCS in response to ME provision. To maintain live weight during lactation ME intakes of 3 × maintenance were required. Twin rearing does required an additional 0.5 × maintenance ME requirement compared with single rearing does. Does can gain live weight and BCS during lactation provided they are fed sufficiently. The preferred nutritional practice should allow maximum ME intake at least until week 6 of lactation.

Cuticle scale edge height and frequency are used to identify animal fibres but exhibit a large range in dimensions, the reasons for which have not been elucidated. Cuticle and cortical cell dimensions along with the ellipticity of fibres were investigated in cashmere samples from a controlled nutrition experiment. Cuticle scale frequency, cuticle thickness, cortical cell dimensions and ellipticity were affected by nutritional treatment, with significant differences between cashmere from goats fed to grow and those which maintained live weight or lost weight. Cuticle scale frequency, cell thickness and ellipticity (contour) varied with fibre diameter, fibre growth rate and the size of the animals. Cuticle thickness and ellipticity were related. Cashmere grown by goats with higher levels of nutrition had longer cortical cells with greater diameter, volume and a higher length:diameter ratio compared with cashmere grown by goats in restricted nutrition treatments. The results show that the fundamental...

Real-time ultrasound scanning is an accurate non-invasive technique used to improve quality in sheep, cattle and pig meat production but has been overlooked in meat production from heavy goat carcasses. The aims of this study were to: determine subjective and objective carcass attributes of 6 year old Angora castrate goats prior to and following slaughter; and determine the relationships between carcass attributes, bodyweight, body condition score (BCS), body dimension measurements and ultrasound measurements using multiple regression modelling. Key attributes were: on-farm bodyweight (range 35–77 kg), BCS (1, very thin to 4.3, fat), dimensional frame measures (wither height, heart girth, anterior-posterior circumference, body volume (circumference × girth)), carcass weight (range 11.6–33.2 kg), GR tissue depth of carcasses (1–27 mm) and the ultrasound measurements of eye muscle depth (EMD, 17–35 mm) and subcutaneous fat depth (SFD, 1–6 mm). Goats from three genetic backgrounds were grazed on pasture together for 6 years. In the three months preceding slaughter the goats grew from an average live weight of 50.7 kg gaining live weight at an average of 117 g/d to reach an average live weight of 62 kg. There were moderate correlations between all measurements. BCS accounted for 55.1% of the variance in carcass weight, 51.3% of the variance in EMD, (3.2% more than did GR tissue depth) and 59.9% of the variance in SFD. Live weight accounted for 83.8% of the variance in carcass weight. The best prediction equation for carcass weight included terms for live weight, SFD, EMD and sire, accounting for 91.5% of variance. Body dimensional measurements were not as useful as BCS in predicting carcass weight, with the best, body volume, accounting for 5% less of the variance than live weight. The best prediction for the EMD included terms for BCS and carcass weight, accounting for 61% of variance. GR tissue depth was primarily associated with SFD, and in combination with carcass weight and BCS explained 71.9% of the variance. In relation to predicting carcass traits, girth accounted for more of the variance in EMD, SFD and GR tissue depth than wither height or body circumference. If breeders aim to alter the EMD and SFD of Angora goats then ultrasound scanning provided better estimates compared with relying on live weight with or without body condition scoring. Both EMD and SFD were also in the best model for predicting carcass weight. BCS was a useful on-farm measurement for estimating carcass attributes but girth was not as useful as body volume in explaining the variance in live weight.

Knowledge of associations between skin follicle development in Angora goats and development of mohair fleeces is limited. These associations were investigated using data from a controlled nutrition experiment which had 3 levels of mid pregnancy nutrition (MPN) × 2 levels of postnatal nutrition during lactation (PNN), with single and twin litters. Skin biopsies were taken (birth, 114, 180, 420 days of age). Mid-side fibre growth and physical properties were determined 6 times between birth and 180 days of age. Birth coats were visually scored (1, straight; 5 curly). Fibre diameter distribution histograms were analysed at these ages. Skin area was measured. Total number of follicles and fibre growth per day determined. Fleeces were harvested at 7, 13 and 19 months of age and tested. Average fleece-free live weight (AvFFLwt) during fleece growing periods was determined. Data were analysed for treatment effects, correlations between attributes and multiple linear regression analysis performed to determine relationships between mean fibre diameter (MFD) at different ages with variables. AvFFLwt over the study within shearing intervals ranged from 5.8 to 37.6 kg. Density of secondary follicles (Ds) at 180 days of ranged from 10.8 to 34.0 mm−2, ratio of secondary to primary skin follicles (S/P) at 420 ranged from 4.8 to 14.1. Total fibre growth/day was related to the surface area (size) of kids, as surface area increased proportionally with live weight0.73. Smaller kids (female, twin reared) grew respectively 15–23% less fibre than larger male and 13–16% less than single reared goats. MFD was 27.8 μm at birth, then declined before increasing after 2 months of age. PNN had small effects on fibre diameter CV which was high at birth before declining rapidly during the first three months of life. There were negative correlations between both Ds and S/P ratio with: MFD; and the incidence of medullated fibres (patch fibre growth and fleeces at 13 and 19 months). The magnitude of these correlations increased with age. Birth coat score was negatively associated with fleece value. Predictions of MFD at shearing were related to log10AvFFLwt during the growth period, either Ds or S/P ratio, sex of kid, and a covariate term for the dam MFD. Greater Ds and S/P ratios greater than 9 were associated with finer mohair and more valuable fleeces.

There is little information available on the nutrient requirements of suckling Angora kids weighing less than 10 kg which has resulted in nutrition recommendations being based on older, heavier and weaned goats. This experiment determined the energy intake of suckling Angora kids to estimate maintenance ME requirement (MEm) and ME required for growth (MEg) for 8 and 21 day old kids. Does were housed in individual pens in an outdoor feedlot from day 47 of pregnancy. Pregnant does experienced a range of controlled nutrition treatments providing a range in live weight and body condition at kidding. From 4 days postpartum treatments were: ad libitum (AL) to allow maximum ME intake resulting in doe live weight gain; or Restricted (R) to 70% of AL, resulting in doe live weight loss until week 10 of lactation. Doe milk production was determined at days 8 and 21 of lactation, and ME intake of milk, kid liveweight change and fibre growth rate were determined. ME intake (kJ/kg0.75day) was then related to daily liveweight gain (g/kg0.75day) using multiple linear regression analysis. At 8 days of age, MEm = 1199 kJ/kg0.75day and MEg = 35.6 kJ/kg0.75day (P = 0.002). At 21 days of age, MEm = 700 kJ/kg0.75day (NS) and MEg = 24.0 kJ/kg0.75day (P

Objectively comparing cashmere goats with different cashmere production, mean fibre diameter (MFD) and staple length (SL) is difficult for farmers. We aimed to develop indices to enable cashmere producers to identify productive goats within their own farms once adjustments had been made for the primary determinants of cashmere production. That is we aimed to develop indices that identify goats and herds that biologically have a high fleece weight in relation to MFD and SL. We used a sample of 1244 commercial cashmere fleeces from goats originating from many Australian farms based in different environmental zones and a previously developed general linear model that related the logarithm of clean cashmere production (CCMwt) and any other potential determinant. In the present study, sub-models were investigated in order to develop new indices for comparing goats in the same farm, based on fleece characteristics and biological efficiency. New Index (MFD), equal to 6.02 × CCMwt / 1.1531 MFD , was developed to identify animals of biologically high CCMwt in relation to their MFD. Unlike previously reported results that MFD is not a useful measurement for comparing the biological efficiency of cashmere goats across farms, the New Index (MFD) allows comparison of the biological efficiency of cashmere goats within farms. New Index (SL), equal to 2.70 × CCMwt / 1.1414 SL , was developed to identify animals of biologically high CCMwt in relation to their SL. New Index (SL) is very similar to the Clean Cashmere Staple Length Index (CCSLI) that had been previously reported for comparison of cashmere goats across farms, and thus the CCSLI can be usefully used for comparing the biological efficiency of cashmere goats both across and within farms. New Index MFD , SL = 8.90 × CCMwt / 1.243 MFD+SL / 2 was developed to identify animals of biologically high CCMwt in relation to both their MFD and SL within farms, and provides useful information above using either New Index (MFD) or CCSLI. The indices can be presented in the same measurement units as fleece weight, which is a biological concept easily understood by cashmere producers, and enable comparisons to be made between animals using just one attribute, clean cashmere weight.

Colour properties are measured prior to the sale of merino wool as they are of commercial importance when greasy wool is sold and when wool is dyed. With the paucity of knowledge of the colour properties of commercial mohair, this study aimed to identify and quantify the factors affecting the brightness (Y) and yellowness (Y-Z) values of commercial lots of Australian mohair. The research database comprised 520 sale lots (>500,000 kg mohair), which had tristimulus tests, and was sold during the period 2001–2009. Mohair was subjectively classed and sale lots objectively tested using international standard methods for mean fibre diameter (MFD, μm), fibre diameter coefficient of variation (%), International Wool Testing Organization (IWTO) clean wool base (IWTO yield, %w/w), vegetable matter (VM, %w/w) and the tristimulus values X, Y and Z (T units). The tristimulus values of Australian mohair were affected by the objective measurements of MFD, VM%, the subjective classing of stain, cotting, kemp and length a...

A single focus on mean fibre diameter (MFD, μm) as the definition of cashmere quality overlooks the effects of fibre length, softness and fibre curvature on cashmere processing, textile quality and consumer acceptance. Many farmers overlook the importance of cashmere staple length (SL, cm) in their fleece assessments. We aimed to determine the importance of SL in comparison with MFD when evaluating cashmere production and to identify how across farm comparisons of cashmere fleeces can be objectively undertaken. A sample of 1244 commercial cashmere fleeces from goats originating from many Australian farms was used. Least squares models, relating the logarithm of clean cashmere production (CCMwt, g) to MFD and SL, were fitted. Six years of data from the Australian cashmere industry between farm fleece competitions were analysed to determine the relation between CCMwt and MFD. In the research flocks, adjusting CCMwt of individual goats across farms for MFD only accounted for 2% of the variance, whereas SL accounted for 39% of the variance. The least squares additive model involving only SL was: log 10 (CCMwt) = 1.570 + 0.06010 × SL. Thus CCMwt was proportional to: 10 0.06010 × SL = 1.1484 SL . It was appropriate to adjust CCMwt for SL by a factor 1/1.1484 (SL − SL0) where SL0 is a standard SL of 7.5 cm. The between farm index for cashmere weight equals: clean cashmere staple length index = 2.823 × CCMwt/1.1484 SL . For industry fleece competitions, regression analysis indicated that there was no association between cashmere production and MFD ( P = 0.81), similar to the research data. Adjusting CCMwt for MFD in across farm comparison and fleece competitions appears to be ineffective. For farm comparisons and in fleece competitions it is important to assess cashmere SL. The use of the Clean Cashmere Staple Length Index will provide a more robust comparison of cashmere productivity between farms as it is an indirect indicator of desirable skin secondary follicle development. The results have application in development projects where obtaining a cashmere MFD test is costly or unavailable.

Felting is a unique attribute of animal fibres used for the production of a range of industrial and apparel textiles. Felting can be an adverse attribute as a consequence of dimensional shrinkage during laundering. As there is little objective information regarding the feltability of rare animal fibres or the factors which may affect felting three investigations were undertaken. A survey (n = 114) of the feltability of cashmere from different origins of production, cashgora, quivet, camel hair, llama, guanaco, bison wool, cow fibre and yak wool quantified the large variation between and within these fibre types. Cashmere from some origins and cashgora produced higher feltball density than the other fibres. Different nutritional management of cashmere goats (n = 35) showed that cashmere grown by poorly fed goats had a lower propensity to felt compared with cashmere grown by better fed goats. A consequence of the progressive blending of cashmere (n = 27) with a low propensity to felt superfine wool (high fi...

Staple entanglement in mohair fleeces occurs when adhesions form between longer and faster growing fibres and shorter and slower growing fibres. This results in accentuated crimp of the longer fibres and an “apparently” reduced staple length. The appearance in the fleece of Angora goats of staple entanglements can lead to the downgrading of the mohair to poorer style and shorter length grades, resulting in up to 60% price reductions. This study examined how staple entanglement score (SES) is related to lifetime factors of Angora goats, and how this relationship can be explained by variations in animal size and fleece attributes. SES was scored using a five-point scale: 5, long free fibres easily separated as no adhesions; 4, some adhesions between fibres; 3, some effort to separate fibres as many adhesions; 2, many adhesions, staple fibres entangled, shortening of staple; 1, very entangled and shortened staple. Measurements were made over 9 shearing periods on a population of Angora castrated males (wethers) goats representing the current range and diversity of genetic origins in Australia, including South African, Texan and interbred admixtures of these and Australian sources. Data on genetic origin, sire, dam, date of birth, dam age, birth weight, birth parity, weaning weight, live weight, fleece growth and fleece attributes were recorded. Two restricted maximum likelihood (REML) models were developed to relate SES with age, animal lifetime factors, fleece quality attributes and live weight. One model allowed fleece quality and live weight traits in the model and the other excluded these traits. Staple entanglement was almost eliminated in mohair harvested from goats shorn every 3 months but was common in mohair from goats shorn twice or once per year. SES was less in goats of Texan genetic background, and was generally less in winter grown mohair. SES was higher for mohair with low fibre curvature (FC, 10°/mm) and a high clean washing yield (CWY, 90%) compared with mohair with low FC and lower CWY (80%), and compared with all mohair with high FC (18°/mm). The response of SES to shearing regime, genetic background, shearing season, age of goat and a response to dam age were almost identical whether or not an adjustment was made for CWY and FC. There was a moderate amount of variability due to sires and individuals. We can conclude that a large part of these effects observed, namely breed, dam age, sire, and a component of the FC and CWY effects, are genetic. Mohair producers can manage the genetic effects by careful selection of sires, especially avoiding those with low CWY or high FC, and avoiding sires with higher levels of staple entanglement or that have produced progeny with higher levels of staple entanglement. Also, unidentified environmental effects are affecting staple entanglement, although a lack of a live weight change effect on entanglement indicates that this effect might not be due to nutrition.

In a range of animals, increasing mean fibre diameter (MFD) of fibre is associated with an increasing incidence of medullated fibres (Med). It would thus be expected that Med in mohair fleeces, from animals in a flock, would be related to the MFD of those fleeces. MFD of mohair is not the only dimensional attribute of fibres. Med in mohair is phenotypically and genetically related to the size of animals. This study examined how Med is related to dimensional properties of mohair over the lifetime of Angora goats and how the relationship varies with other lifetime factors. The relationship found is then examined to determine the extent that the relationship can be explained by variations in animal size of the goats. Measurements were made over 11 shearing periods on a population of Angora goats representing the current range and diversity of genetic origins in Australia, including South African, Texan and interbred admixtures of these and Australian sources. Records of breed, sire, dam, date of birth, dam age, birth weight, birth parity, weaning weight, live weight, fleece growth and fleece attributes were taken for castrated males (wethers). Animals’ fleece-free live weight (FFLwt, kg) were determined for each goat at shearing time by subtracting the greasy fleece weight from the live weight recorded immediately prior to shearing. The average of the FFLwt at the start of the period and the FFLwt at the end of the period was calculated. Two restricted maximum likelihood (REML) models were developed to relate Med to MFD, staple length (SL) and other lifetime factors. One model allowed FFLwt in the model and the other excluded FFLwt. With the exception of the 1.5 years shearing, Med strongly increased with increasing MFD whether or not adjustments were made for FFLwt measurements. In particular Med increased by 2.0% for each 1 μm increase in MFD, with no adjustment for FFLwt measurements, and increased by 1.5% for each 1 μm increase in MFD, with adjustment for FFLwt measurements. Within each shearing interval increasing average FFLwt was associated with increasing incidence of Med in a similar way to that which has been previously reported without including MFD in the model. There was no evidence that SL needed to be included in the models for Med. Mohair grown by the goats of Mixed genetic background grew mohair which had a higher incidence of Med at ages 2 and 2.5 years and the trend was apparent in other shearing periods. We can conclude that there is both a large response of Med to live weight and a large response to MFD, and that these responses are largely functionally separate. While the response to MFD is in accord with earlier work, there is an unrelated and unreported physiological mechanism that favours the production of Med in larger Angora goats. Clearly, larger Angora goats are biologically different compared with smaller animals from the same flock, in ways that are not purely related to the allometrics of size.

Softness of apparel textiles is a major attribute sought by consumers. There is surprisingly little objective information on the softness properties of rare animal fibres, particularly cashmere, alpaca and mohair. Samples of these and other rare animal fibres from different origins of production and processors were objectively measured for fibre diameter, fibre curvature (FC, crimp) and resistance to compression (softness). While there were curvilinear responses of resistance to compression to FC and to mean fibre diameter, FC accounted for much more of the variance in resistance to compression. Fibre type was an important determinant of resistance to compression. The softest fibres were alpaca, mohair and cashgora and all of the fibres measured were softer than most Merino wool. Quivet, llama, camel, guanaco, vicuna, yak wool, bison wool, dehaired cow down and Angora rabbit were also differentiated from alpaca, mohair and cashmere. There were important differences in the softness and FC of cashmere from ...

The presence of even a small amount of medullated fibre, in otherwise high quality mohair, may have a pronounced adverse effect on its value and end-use potential. However, there is considerable confusion about the effects, if any, of environmental variables and management upon the incidence of medullated fibres in mohair. This study examined how the incidence of medullated fibres (Med, % by number) is related to the fleece-free live weight (FFLwt) of Angora goats of different genetic origins over their lifetime, and how the relationship varies with other lifetime factors. Measurements were made over 11 shearing periods of 6 months, on a population of Angora goats representing the current range and diversity of genetic origins in Australia, including South African, Texan and interbred admixtures of these and Australian sources. Records of breed, sire, dam, date of birth, dam age, birth weight, birth parity, weaning weight, live weight, fleece growth and fleece quality were taken for castrated males (wethers) (n = 94 animals). A restricted maximum likelihood (REML) model was developed for log10(Med + 1), which allowed the observations of the same animal at different ages to be correlated in an unstructured manner. Med varied between 0.1% and 4.3%. The median average FFLwt during a shearing interval increased from 15 kg at 1 year old to 59 kg at 6 years old. Generally, within each shearing interval, Med increased with increasing average FFLwt. However, the size and shape of the relationship differed greatly between shearing ages. For example, at 3.5 years of age Med increased from about 1.1% at an average FFLwt of 26 kg to 2.6% at 50 kg, whilst at 5.0 years of age Med only changed from 1.4% at 32 kg to 1.6% at 56 kg. Goats with mixed genetic parentage showed an increase in Med at some shearings, particularly at younger ages. Variation in animal nutrition, as measured by live weight change during shearing periods, did not affect Med. The results supplement our earlier findings that mohair mean fibre diameter and clean mohair fleece weight, but not staple length, are greater in larger Angora goats. Live weight needs to be taken into account in genetic evaluation of the incidence of medullated fibres. We conclude that any advantage in handling fewer but larger Angora goats rather than more but smaller goats will come at the detriment of producing lower quality mohair, both in terms of increased Med and mean fibre diameter.

This work aimed to quantify factors affecting the reflectance attributes of Australian white mohair sourced from five different farms and to evaluate the effect of season and year on mohair grown by goats of known genetic origin in a replicated study. For the season study the mohair was harvested every three months for two years. All goats and their fleeces were weighed. Mid-side samples were tested for fibre diameter attributes, clean washing yield (CWY), staple length (SL) and for tristimulus values X, Y, Z and Y-Z. For the farm study (n = 196), linear models, relating Y, Z and Y-Z were fitted to farm of origin and other objective measurements. For the season and year study (n = 176), data were analysed by ANOVA and then by linear analysis. The variation accounted for by farm alone was: X, 22%; Y, 24%; Z, 12%; Y-Z, 30% (P < 0.001). Once farm had been taken into account, the regression models for X, Y and Z had similar significant terms: mean fibre diameter (MFD), CWY, SL and fibre diameter CV; and correlation coefficients (057–0.65). For Y-Z, in addition to farm only MFD was significant (P = 1.8 × 10−9). While X, Y, Z and Y-Z were significantly associated with clean fleece weight (CFwt), CFwt was not significant in any final model. Season affected mohair Y (P = 2.5 × 10−24), Z (P = 2.3 × 10−20) and Y-Z (P = 6.8 × 10−22). Autumn grown mohair had higher Y and Z, and summer grown mohair had lower Z than mohair grown in other seasons. This resulted in summer grown mohair having the highest Y-Z and winter grown mohair having the lowest Y-Z than mohair grown in other seasons. The differences between years in Y, Z and Y-Z were significant but not large. When Y, Z and Y-Z were modeled with season and other mohair attributes, MFD, CWY, CFwt, incidence of medullated fibre (Med) and sire were also significant terms. This model accounted for 62.1% of the variance. Over the range of Med (0.3–4.2%), Y-Z increased by 11 T units. Increasing CFwt 0.5 kg was associated with a decline in Y-Z of 7.5 T units. The variation in Y, Z and Y-Z associated with sire effects were respectively 2.66, 3.77, and 1.04 T units. In the farm and the season studies increasing MFD was associated with lower Y and Z and higher Y-Z. The extent of the differences in tristimulus values between seasons and years, were unlikely to be of commercial importance. The extent of the differences between farms, and to variations in MFD and Med were large enough to be of commercial importance. Clean mohair colour was artefactually biased by MFD.

In the Huancavelica region of Peru alpacas form the main and often only means of deriving an income for 3300 poor families in 60 communities. Ninety percent of alpacas in the region are Huacaya which are grazed at altitudes 4000–4800 m. Little attention has been paid to alpacas grazed in the High Andes. We aimed to: (i) quantify the variation in alpaca mean fibre diameter (MFD), fibre diameter coefficient of variation (CVD), fibre curvature (FC) and staple length (SL) among 24 sampling sites, (ii) quantify the difference between the mid-side sampling site and other fleece components for each fleece attribute, (iii) identify the sampling site with the highest correlation to the fibre attributes of the fleece in general, and (iv) quantify the relationship between FC and MFD for alpaca. Adult female alpacas (n = 31, mean live weight 71 kg) were sampled and had their fleece weighed in 8 components. Total mean fleece weight was 3.35 kg (range 2.13–6.01). Staples were measured for length (mm) and tested on the OFDA2000 to determine MFD, CVD and FC. The effect of the site was determined using ANOVA analysis. Values for FC were log10 transformed. Correlations between sites and regression analysis between MFD and FC were performed. The mean values for the mid-side site were: MFD 26.3 μm; CVD 20.2%; FC 34.9 °/mm; SL 91 mm, which were finer and longer than other fleece components. The variation in MFD between the 24 sampling sites was 20.2–50.6 μm and between 9 sampling sites in the main fleece saddle was 24.8–31.7 μm. Fleece attributes varied significantly between all fleece components and among fleece sites (P

We aimed to quantify if and to what extent permanent incisor wear affected mohair production in adult Angora castrate goats. The goats were grazed on annual temperate pastures for 6 years. During their sixth year mohair was harvested every 6 months and liveweight measured. Incisors were inspected at age 6 years and the amount and pattern of wear quantified. Restricted maximum likelihood (REML) base models were developed to account for background sources of variation. Once a base model had been selected for each fleece attribute, an extra term for the linear effect of the first and other permanent incisor wear were added to the model. During the year mean liveweight, greasy mohair production, clean mohair production and mean fibre diameter were (S.D.): 55.6 (5.85) kg, 4.97 (1.00) kg, 4.16 (0.87) kg, 34.8 (4.02) μm. Mean wear on permanent first incisors was 9% (range 0–30%). There was little wear on other permanent incisors. Greasy fleece weight, clean fleece weight, staple length and fleece entanglement were reduced significantly with increased wear of first permanent incisors. There were no significant effects of incisor wear detected for nine other fleece attributes or liveweight. The results indicate that 30% wear of the permanent first incisors reduced greasy fleece production by 20% and reduced clean fleece production by 30%. Given the magnitude of the effects detected it is clear that relatively small amounts of wear of permanent incisors in adult Angora goats reduce production of mohair and consequently will reduce financial returns from mohair sales. The clear implication is that managers of mohair producing enterprises should assess the incisors of adult Angora goats and use this information in determining which animals to cull from their flocks.

We aimed to quantify the sources of variation contributing to the main quality attributes of cashmere produced from goats in the Pamir mountain districts of Murghab, Shugnon and Vanj in Tajikistan. In early spring 2010, mid-side samples were taken from 194 adult females, 43 adult males and 20 castrates belonging to 58 farmers and pastoralists in 14 villages. For 57 goats, samples were also taken from the shoulder and hip sites. Mean fibre diameter (MFD), fibre curvature (FC) and cashmere staple length (SL) data were examined using a general linear model to determine the relationships between fleece attributes and other possible effects. For females, the mean (s.d.) for MFD, FC and SL were: 16.5 (1.70) μm; 46 (12.1)°/mm; 53 (22.9) mm. MFD was affected by district, SL and age of goat. SL was affected by district, MFD, gender, age of goat and village. FC was affected by district, MFD, shade of cashmere, age of goat and farmer. Cashmere from Vanj district was finer and shorter than cashmere from Murghab and Shugnon. Cashmere grown on the mid-side and hip sites was finer and had higher FC than cashmere grown on the shoulder. Cashmere grown on the hip was shorter than cashmere grown on the mid-side and shoulder. About 50% of the cashmere sampled was 18.5 μm and may only be suitable for weaving or, if cashgora, will have little commercial value. Most of the cashmere was coloured. There are cashmere goats in the Murghab, Shugnon and Vanj districts of Tajikistan which produce the finest qualities of cashmere, comparable to premium grades of Chinese cashmere. There is substantial scope to increase the commercial value of cashmere produced by goats in Tajikistan, in particular increasing SL for fine cashmere, reducing MFD for the longest cashmere and ensuring cashmere has acceptable FC and white colour.

The review investigates the use of permanent incisor wear and loss by farmers culling sheep from flocks, summarises investigations into incisor development, factors affecting incisor wear and loss, impacts on production and economics and practices designed to prolong incisor life and makes suggestions for future research. Periodontal disease is outside the scope of the review. Sheep farmers place considerable emphasis on the soundness of their ewes’ mouths and cull sheep for a wide range of faults in their incisors. The length of the productive life in sheep is essentially determined by the state of their permanent incisors. It is normal for there to be a range in the number of incisors present at different ages probably related to maturity and live weight, but most reports fail to quantify these factors. Incisor wear and loss (“broken mouth”) are affected by stocking rate, soil ingestion, farm of origin, breed and gender of sheep, pasture type, internal parasites, mineral nutrition, supplementary feeding and age at first mating of ewes. Incisor wear and loss affects feed intake of sheep, and in most studies reduces live weight gain, milk and wool production. Under certain conditions sheep are not affected by worn or lost incisors. Premature culling of sheep, as a result of incisor wear and loss, increases overhead and replacement costs and reduces lifetime productivity, genetic gain and income from sheep sales thus reducing profitability of sheep farming. A number of practices have the potential to increase longevity of ewes in flocks by reducing incisor wear and loss including: genetic selection; increasing dietary calcium intake during growth and lactation; and supplementary feeding during periods of short pasture. The evidence suggests the mechanical shortening of incisors provides no benefits. Incisor wear and loss in sheep has been accepted as an inevitable outcome of advancing age. There has been little investigation of these issues during the past 20 years. Suggestions are made for future research including: quantification of economic benefit/cost ratio of different farm practices including mineral nutrition, on incisor condition and animal production; genetic selection to improved incisor retention and wear; and development of interactive economic models related to different culling strategies based on incisor condition. Suggestions are made on ways to improve the design and conduct of research in this field including adequate controls, size, duration and statistical power.

Cashmere fibre curvature (crimp) impacts on the softness and quality of cashmere textiles, the efficiency of cashmere processing and cashmere production. This study investigated the relationship between cashmere fibre curvature standard deviation (FCSD) and other fleece attributes, and how this relationship differs with animal and farm attributes, for 10 commercial cashmere flocks in Australia. Data was analysed using general linear model analysis. Nineteen parameters were recorded for 1168 goats. Following log transformation, the best model for FCSD included farm, goat age, mean fibre diameter, fibre curvature, fibre diameter standard deviation, cashmere yield, cashmere staple length and live weight and the interactions between these terms. The percentage variance accounted for was 82%. Mean fibre diameter and fibre curvature accounted for 55% of the variation in FCSD and farm accounted for 41% of the variation. Cumulatively mean fibre diameter, fibre curvature and farm accounted for 75% of the variation existing in FCSD. For the other terms, age added 2% and the remaining measurements a further 5% to variation accounted for by the best model. Environmental (farm-effects) on FCSD are large and may explain the difficulties cashmere growers experience when they evaluate cashmere goats. Increasing the fibre curvature of cashmere was associated with an increase in cashmere FCSD, but for some combinations of farm and MFD the increase in FCSD was ≈35°/mm while with other combinations the increase was ≈5°/mm as fibre curvature increased. At a given fibre curvature the response of FCSD to mean fibre diameter differed substantially between farms, from strong negative to strong positive. Increasing cashmere yield from 20 to 55% was associated with decline in FCSD. Increasing fibre diameter SD from 3 to 5 μm increased FCSD by 6°/mm, increasing staple length and live weight were associated with small declines in FCSD. There was strong evidence of an age effect that differed with farms, but there were few clear cut trends in FCSD with increasing age. The results suggest that farm based influences are affecting the point at which fibre keratinisation is completed and thus influencing the variation in FCSD. We conclude that, because the differences between farms in the relationship been fibre curvature standard deviation, mean fibre diameter and fibre curvature are great, it is unlikely that crimp rate and crimp definition will be good indicators of cashmere fineness across farms.

Differences in live weight and mature size associated with farm of origin, age and sex were quantified for commercial Australian cashmere goats. Goats from 11 farms in four Australian states, consisting of 1367 does and 98 wethers aged 1–13-year-old were monitored between December and June (early summer to mid winter). We used the live weight for May, as this was present for all farms and was prior to pregnancy related increase in live weight. Individual live weight ranged from 9 to 69 kg. For does, at each farm, live weight increased substantially with age and approached the maximum value at about 5 years of age. Farms differed greatly in the adult live weight with some farms reaching about 46 kg and others only reaching about 30 kg. Nevertheless those farms that had the greatest mean live weight for young does generally had the greatest mean live weight as adults. With the exception of one farm, wethers and does of the same age had similar live weights. The differences due to farm were much larger than the effects of age and sex. This study demonstrates that there are large differences in the mature live weight of cashmere does obtained on different Australian farms and these differences are likely to impact on economic returns.

The present work aimed to determine how the average fibre diameter coefficient of variation (CVD) and fibre curvature (FC) differences between nine sampling sites vary between sex and flock, to identify differences in variability between sampling sites as a result of between animal and between sire variability and to determine correlations between sampling sites in between animal and between sire variability. Australian Angoras ( n = 313) from two farms in southern Australia were sampled at 12 and 18 months of age at nine sites (mid side, belly, brisket, hind flank, hip, hock, mid back, neck, shoulder). Staples were taken prior to shearing at skin level and CVD and FC determined. For each shearing, differences in CVD and FC between sampling sites, how these differences were affected by farm, sex, and sire, and the covariance between sites for sire and individual animal effects were investigated by restricted maximum likelihood (REML) analyses. The median mid side CVD at 12 and 18 months of age ranged from 23.6 to 25.1% but the actual range was 16.8–34.2%. The median mid side FC at 12 and 18 months of age ranged from 14.4 to 18.6°/mm but the actual range was 10.5–26.3°/mm. The general pattern for CVD was for the mid back, hip and neck sites to have similar CVD, the brisket, hind flank and hock sites to have larger CVD and the belly to have smaller CVD than the mid side site. The between animal variation for CVD was lowest at the mid back site. This implies that the mid back would be the most effective site for between animal selection for CVD. Heritabilities for CVD (range at 18 months 0.18–0.30) were only about half the heritabilities for mean fibre diameter in the same study. There was a marked anterior–posterior increase in FC at both farms and with both ages. The results give no clear indication of the best site for between animal selection for FC, other than that the hock should be avoided. Heritabilities for FC are moderate to high (range at 18 months 0.44–0.77) and the genetic correlations are high except for the hock. Thus genetic selection for FC at any site, other than the hock, should be effective for changing FC over the entire fleece. There was more variability between animals than between sites and sires. These results are put into context with associated research on variation in mean fibre diameter and staple length.

SUMMARYThe present study aimed to determine how the average mohair staple length (SL) differences between nine sampling sites vary between sex and flock, to identify differences in SL variability between sampling sites as a result of between-animal and between-sire variability and to determine SL correlations between sampling sites in between-animal and between-sire variability. Australian Angora goats (n=301) from two farms in southern Australia were sampled at 12 and 18 months of age at nine sites (mid side, belly, brisket, hind flank, hip, hock, mid back, neck and shoulder). Staples were taken prior to shearing at skin level and stretched SL determined. For each shearing, differences in SL between sampling sites, how these differences were affected by farm, sex and sire, and the covariance between sites for sire and individual animal effects were investigated by restricted maximum likelihood (REML) analyses. The median mid-side SL at 12 and 18 months of age was 110 and 130 mm, respectively, but the actual range in mid-side SL was 65–165 mm. There was an anterior–posterior decline in SL with the hock being particularly short. There was no evidence that the between-site correlation of the sire effects differed from 1, indicating that genetic selection for SL at one site will be reflected in SL over the whole fleece. However, low heritabilities of SL at the hock, belly and brisket or at any site at 12 months of age were obtained. There was more variability between sites than between sires, but the between-animal variation was greater. The hip and mid-back sites can be recommended for within-flock (culling) and genetic selection for SL due to their low sampling variability, moderate heritability and ease of location.

Cashmere fibre curvature (crimp) has important impact on the softness and quality of cashmere textiles, the efficiency of cashmere processing and cashmere production. This work was aimed to quantify the magnitude and direction of factors affecting cashmere fibre curvature, with data collected from 11 Australian commercial cashmere farms, using general linear model analysis. Nineteen parameters were recorded for 1244 goats. Following log transformation the best model for fibre curvature included farm, age, clean washing yield, mean fibre diameter, cashmere yield, fibre diameter standard deviation, and live weight and the interactions between these terms. The percentage variance accounted for was 71.7%. Mean fibre diameter alone accounted for 39% of the variation in fibre curvature and farm accounted for 49% of the variation. Cumulatively mean fibre diameter and farm accounted for 66.6% of the variation existing in fibre curvature. For the other terms, age added 2.2% and the other fibre measurements a further 2.9% to variation accounted for by the best model. Results suggest that within a farm, using cashmere fibre crimp frequency to estimate mean fibre diameter has a correlation of 0.72—provided the trained observers perform as well as the calibrated laboratory equipment. On the other hand, however, results indicate fibre curvature not to be a reasonable indicator of mean fibre diameter differences across farms. Farm-effects on fibre curvature are large and may explain the difficulties cashmere growers experience when they visit other farms to visually evaluate cashmere goats prior to purchase. This work indicated that heavier goats are likely to produce cashmere with a lower fibre curvature. As this relationship did not differ between farms, it is reasonable to conclude that all goats exhibit this phenotypic response. Using cashmere fibre curvature (crimp frequency) as a tool for changing mean fibre diameter or selecting homogenous batches of fibre for sale will be reasonably effective within a farm, but is not a reasonable indicator and predictor of mean fibre diameter differences between farms.

To identify fleece and animal growth characteristics that are associated with cashmere production, the magnitude and direction of factors affecting cashmere production using fleece and live body weight measurements available to the cashmere producer were modelled. Data was collected from 11 Australian commercial cashmere farms. Following log transformation of clean cashmere weight, the best general linear model for predicting clean cashmere weight included: farm, mean fibre diameter, fibre diameter standard deviation, cashmere fibre curvature and fibre curvature standard deviation, cashmere staple length, clean washing yield, live body weight, live body weight change, and interactions between these parameters. The best general linear model did not include variables for age and sex cohorts. The variance accounted for was 67.6%. The residual standard deviation was 0.115. A majority of the variation regarding clean cashmere production (58%) was related to farm, staple length and mean fibre diameter. To obtain an understanding of how the responses of clean cashmere weight to fleece and growth measurements varied with farm, regression coefficients in the general linear model were modelled as possibly correlated random effects, using REML mixed model analysis. On a typical farm, greater clean cashmere weight was associated with longer staple length, greater mean fibre diameter, greater fibre diameter standard deviation, greater fibre curvature, greater fibre curvature standard deviation and greater live body weight. Farms recorded responses varying from negative to positive for washing yield and live body weight change. It was concluded that fleece characteristics and animal growth (but not age and sex) are primary determinants of cashmere production. However, the way these characteristics affect cashmere production varies from farm to farm.

This study investigated the effects of raw cashmere attributes on the efficiency of dehairing and on dehaired cashmere length. The results show that the following attributes of raw cashmere were associated with more efficient processing and/or the production of longer cashmere: white color; longer raw cashmere; greater fiber curvature; lower vegetable matter; normal length guard hair; absence of visible cotting. Raw cashmere with a higher cashmere content and higher fiber diameter processed less efficiently than raw cashmere with a lower cashmere content and finer fiber diameter. This work identifies the value of using raw cashmere staple length and cashmere fiber curvature measurements, and shows that the variation explained by known attributes on cashmere processing efficiency was high. These results are applicable to cashmere classing, breeding, processing, and the value of the final product.

The present work was conducted to determine how the average mean fibre diameter (MFD) differences between nine sampling sites vary between sex and flock, to identify differences in MFD variability between sampling sites as a result of between animal and between sire variability and to determine MFD correlations between sampling sites in between animal and between sire variability. Australian Angoras ( n = 300) from two herds in southern Australia were sampled at 12 and 18 months of age at nine sites (mid side, belly, brisket, hind flank, hip, hock, mid back, neck, shoulder). Staples were taken prior to shearing at skin level. For each shearing, differences in MFD between sampling sites, how these differences were affected by property, sex, and sire, and the covariance between sites for sire and individual animal effects were investigated by restricted maximum likelihood (REML) analyses. The median mid side MFD at 12 months of age was Property 1 does 21.9 μm; Property 1 wethers 22.0 μm; Property 2 does 26.6 μm; Property 2 wethers 25.3 μm. The median mid side MFD at 18 months of age was Property 1 does 27.8 μm; Property 1 wethers 27.5 μm. It is concluded that the hip and mid back sites can be recommended for within flock selection (culling) due to their low sampling variability and ease of location. While genetic selection at any central/upper sampling site should be effective for bringing down the average MFD, it might be unwise to exclusively use any one particular site all of the time. For sale, the brisket fibre needs to be placed into a fibre diameter line two grades coarser than the main body of the fleece. On some properties the neck fibre should be placed into a fibre diameter line one grade coarser than the main body of the fleece. The building of mohair sale lots based on tests from the mid side site or any other sampling site should enable segregation of mohair into lots of different commercial value. However, property specific site differences in the distribution of MFD around the fleece need to be accounted for when creating lots to meet a specified MFD.

Body condition scoring is widely used for sheep and cattle but the practice is included in only one Code of Practice for the welfare of goats in Australia. There is no published scientific evidence to support or defend its use in the assessment of welfare risks to farmed goats.The significance of stocking rate, grazing system, body condition score (CS) and live weight were investigated in explaining the risk of mortality of individual and flocks of grazing Angora goats from hypothermia following a severe weather event in April. This event occurred 5 weeks after shearing the goats. Angora goats and Saxon Merino sheep were grazed alone, or mixed together in equal numbers at each of three stocking rates.There was no mortality amongst Angora goats provided they grazed at the lowest stocking rate even when their CS wasor = 2.0. Mortality in flocks of Angora goats was most related to the CS reached during the preceding 2 months. For flocks of Angora goats there was no mortality at CSor = 2.5 and mortality increased sharply at mean CS2.0. For individual Angora goats, mortality increased as CS declined and stocking rate and grazing combinations were additive in effect on mortality. Grazing with sheep increased mortality of Angora goats at higher stocking rates. The individual goat mortality rate was not dependent on individual plot effects suggesting that these results are applicable widely. Live weight loss was not related to mortality rates of goats once CS had been accounted for.It was concluded that CS and stocking rate were highly significant determinants of welfare risk in Angora goats.

SUMMARYThe impact of genotype and of frequency and timing of shearing, on mohair attributes and production of modern Angora goats was studied. Goats in the southern hemisphere grazed pastures between February 2004 and 2006. There were seven shearing treatments by three genetic strains with four or eight replicates of individual goats. Treatments were: three different 6-month shearing intervals and two of 12-month shearing intervals with different months of shearing, a 7-month winter shearing interval and a 3-month shearing interval. Genetic strain was based on sire line: 1·0 South African; 1·0 Texan; and Mixed 0·5 South African and 0·5 Texan. Annual greasy mohair production was 5·08 kg, and average clean fleece production was 4·37 kg. The Angora goats produced an annual clean fleece equivalent to 0·122 of their mean fleece-free live weight which was equal to 0·34 g/kg/day. Measurements were analysed over the period of spring 2004 shearing to spring 2005 shearing, excluding the June–December shearing treatment. Increased frequency of shearing increased fleece growth and affected 13 objective and subjective attributes of mohair that were evaluated including clean washing yield, fibre diameter and fibre diameter variation, incidence of medullated fibres, staple length, fibre curvature, crimp frequency, style, staple definition, staple fibre entanglement and staple tip shape. The direction of these effects were generally favourable and for most attributes the magnitude of the response was linear and commercially important. Each additional shearing resulted in an additional 149 g of clean mohair representing 0·034 of the annual clean mohair production. This increase was associated with a 0·6 cm increase in staple length and 0·32 μm increase in mean fibre diameter. In conclusion, Angora goats shorn less frequently grew less mohair that was more likely to be entangled in spring. Managers of Angora goats should take note of these findings.

An investigation of commercially important alpaca fibre attributes aimed to identify the influence of management and production variables on alpaca fibre and to quantify the relative economic value of fibre production. Fleeces from five farms in southern Australia ( n = 1100) were measured using midside samples and standard tests and were assigned a relative economic value based on an analysis of market price data. Greasy fleece (GFW) and saddle weights of Huacayas peaked at 2 years and Suris at 3 years of age and then declined with increases in age until 6 years of age. GFW of Huacaya were not affected by mean fibre diameter (MFD). In Suris, GFW increased with MFD reaching a peak at 29–33 μm. Mean ± S.D. of clean washing yield was 92.0 ± 1.5%. The proportion of the fleece as saddle, neck and skirting components was (mean ± S.E., %): saddle 55.9 ± 0.9, neck 16.3 ± 0.5, skirtings 27.8 ± 0.6. About, 10% of Huacayas had fleeces with MFD 29.9 μm. One-third of Huacaya and Suri saddles had 50% of their fibres medullated. For Huacaya and Suri alpaca, the incidence of medullated fibres increased linearly from 10 to 60% by weight as MFD increased from 20 to 36 μm. The ratio of medullated fibre diameter to MFD declined as MFD increased. For Huacaya, there was no change in average staple length as MFD increased. Huacaya alpaca had a greater fibre curvature than Suri alpaca. Data on resistance to compression and staple strength was correlated with other fibre attributes. The price declined by 11% per 1 μm increase in MFD from 22 to 26 μm and by 5% per 1 μm increase between 27 and 34 μm. The total relative economic value increased with increasing GFW and with increasing saddle weight up to 2.5 kg. Total relative economic value declined as MFD increased above 23 μm, increasing live weight above 60 kg and with increasing age above 2 years for Huacaya and 3 years for Suri. The productivity and economic returns from fleece production of Huacaya and Suri breeds was similar. The Australian industry needs to implement commercial mating, shearing and culling strategies to maximise production and returns from animals aged less than 3 years. The main driver of economic value from fleece production was lower MFD of the fleece.

Adult Huacaya alpaca (mixed sex, mean±S.D., age 5.2±2.7 years, live weight 72.0±9.5 kg) were grazed with Peppin Merino sheep (castrated male, age 3±0.1 years, live weight 54.0±3.9 kg) for 2 years on improved annual pasture at commercial grazing pressures (10–17 dry sheep equivalents/ha) near Melbourne, Australia. Alpacas and sheep gained weight during the first year and then lost weight (proportional loss: alpacas 22%, sheep 20%, NS) before commencing weight gain. Twice the alpacas gained when the sheep lost weight (P

Huacaya and Suri alpacas (n ¼ 120) of varying age, live weight (LWT) and sex (female, male) were selected randomly from four farms in southern Australia. At shearing, fleeces were divided into four components: saddle (S), neck (N), pieces (P; front and back legs, belly, apron) and the midside sample (MS). Components were weighed, sampled using the grid sampling technique and fleece attributes measured: clean washing yield (CWY), mean fibre diameter (MFD), coefficient of variation of the MFD (CV(D)), incidence of medullated fibres (Med), mean medullated fibre diameter (MedMFD) and coefficient of variation of the MedMFD (MedCV(D)). The MS and saddle grid sample (SGS) were used to create models to predict the fleece attribute of the total fleece (TF), saddle and neck fibre. For each fleece attribute MS had lower values than SGS and TF (P < 0:005) and SGS, except for CWY, had lower values than the P and TF (P < 0:005). The means were: MFD MS 27.5 mm, S 28.8 mm, N 28.7 mm, P 37.6 mm, TF 31.2 mm; CV(D) MS 24.3%, S 27.0%, N 28.6%, P 30.6%, TF 28.1%; CWY MS 90.2%, S 91.4%, N 88.9%, P 92.8%; Med 24.4%, S 33.1%, P 44.5%, TF 35.2%; MedMFD MS 32.7 mm, S 34.4 mm, P 41.1 mm, TF 36.0 mm; MedCV(D) MS 19.4%, S 22.3%, P 25.9%, TF 23.4%. The MS was found to be an appropriate sample from which to predict the MFD and CWY. CV(D) was only satisfactorily predicted by the SGS (r ¼ 0:88), with the exception of the neck fleece, for which neither the MS nor SGS could provide an accurate predictive model. The MS did not sufficiently account for the variation in Med (r ¼ 0:73‐0.79). The SGS gave accurate prediction of Med (r ¼ 0:98). Sex effects were detected in models for TFMFD, NMFD and TFCV(D). LWT effects were detected in models for NMFD, NCV(D) and TFMedMFD. SGS often gave a more accurate prediction of a fleece attribute but it requires the removal of the entire fleece, whereas MS can be removed by shearing a small area or can be removed during shearing with a minimum of effort. Sampling variance for SGS was generally two to four times greater than the sampling variance for MS with the 95% confidence limits (CLs) for SGS being about double those of MS for most parameters except for clean washing yield (CWY) which were similar. Sampling variance for the incidence of medullated fibres in SGS was very high. The large 95% CL for all the tested fibre attributes indicate that alpaca breeders and advisors need to consider taking suitable duplicate measurements and other precautions during breeding and animal selling programs. Crown Copyright # 2002 Published by Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Objective To investigate the effects of the timing and duration of eruption of the first permanent incisors, live weight, sex and other factors on contemporaneous live weight gain in Angora goats. Design Goats were previously part of a pen study on the effects of energy intake of Angora does during pregnancy and lactation on kid development. The design was 3 levels of nutrition in mid-pregnancy by 2 levels of postnatal nutrition in 17 randomised blocks. Methods Artificial insemination, ultrasound examination and feeding does in pens enabled accurate conduct of the study. After weaning, goats were grazed in sex groups. Live weight change between 14 and 20 months of age was related to deciduous first incisor loss and permanent first incisor development and other attributes assessed before the study. Results Live weight change was related to the elapsed time for first permanent incisors to commence eruption and to the length of time for first permanent incisors to erupt. This response was affected by sex. Over summer and autumn, entire males with short eruption intervals gained 2–3 kg more than entire males with long eruption intervals. Females that reached first permanent incisor eruption by mid-summer had a live weight gain of 3 kg more than those that reached the same development 3 months later. Conclusions Live weight change in yearling Angora goats was associated with the process of first permanent incisor eruption. In females, live weight gain was greater when first permanent incisor eruption was earlier. In males, live weight gain was greater when first permanent incisor eruption was faster.

The compositions of diets of Merino sheep and Angora goats were determined when they grazed annual pastures (Wimmerarye Lolium rigidum; Barley grass, Hordeum leporinum; Silver grass, Vulpia bromoides; Subterranean clover, Trifolium subterraneum) in March, May, August and October, 1985 and in February and April, 1987. Oesophageally-fistulated sheep and goats were stocked at 7.5 and 10/ha on pastures with 1.7–2.9 t available DM/ha in 1985, 3.0–4.5 t/ha in 1987. On all occasions, both species selected a diet with more green herbage, N and digestible organic matter than on offer in the pasture. Except in February, sheep selected a diet with more green clover, less green grass and dry herbage, higher in N (3.3–3.9% vs. 2.8–3.4%) and lower in ADF (24–39% vs. 27–44%), than did goats; differences were significant except in February and March when 98% and 93% of available pastures were dry herbage. In vitro OM digestibilities, about 40% in February and at least 68% in March, April, August and October, did not differ between sheep and goats. In May, goats selected a diet of 66% dead herbage vs. 20% for sheep, 44% ADF vs. 29%, 1.7% N vs. 3.3% and in vitro digestibility was 12% lower (P

Objective and subjective evaluations of goats for meat production are related to important determinants of production and profitability. The most important attributes in assessment of goats for market are: live weight; body condition score; and the age of goats. As goats grow, their carcass and body organs increase in weight in proportion to the empty body weight. For farmers and field workers the linear regression approach for estimating carcass weight by measuring live weight is the most suitable as it accounts for 88 to 97% of the variation in carcass, offal and boneless meat weight. Live weight scales or heart girth tapes should be used and the risks and errors associated with these methods are summarized. The proportion of a live goat that is the carcass, known as dressing percentage, increases from 35% to about 50% as goats grow. The usefulness and errors associated with dressing percentage in field estimation are discussed. A valuable subjective method for estimating the nutritional status of goats is the use of body condition scoring as it accounts for 60 to 67% of the variation in live weight change, carcass weight and fat reserves of goats. A method for body condition scoring and a similar fat scoring system are explained. Body condition score is also associated with mortality risk and reproductive performance of goats. The number of permanent incisors in the lower jaw of goats is a method of estimating the age of goats but is biased by differences in live weights of goats. The value and role of ultrasound scanning the carcasses of goats is summarized. For the marketing of kid meat no permanent incisors should have erupted. Other useful practices for the successful marketing of goat meat are discussed including: knowing market specifications and chemical withholding periods; animal health; prevention of bruising; identification of goats; size of consignments; timeliness; provision of paperwork. A checklist is provided. The use of subjective and objective assessment techniques in evaluating goats for meat production will provide the best results. Where only subjective assessment techniques are available they will provide satisfactory performance provided the skills have been learnt and are applied.

Cashmere castrated male goats from two sources, farm-domesticated, selected Australian feral goats and third generation selected cashmere castrated male goats, were ranked on cashmere growth potential and allocated to control grazing (C) or grazing supplemented (S) with whole barley grain to gain liveweight (LW) from 1986 to 1989. Goats were shorn in July. Yearly seasonal conditions provided three different patterns in LW change which had major effects on cashmere growth. LW at the start of each cashmere growing season and mean LW together accounted for 77% of the variation in cashmere growth. Cashmere fleece yield was 3.2% units (% w/w) lower (P

Details of cashmere and hair fibre metrology of Liaoning cashmere goats at the Gai County Cashmere Goat Farm, Liaoning Province, China, are reported. Midside fleece samples were taken from five adult bucks, five yearling bucks and five adult pregnant does (live weights 60 kg, 23 kg and 35 kg, respectively). Fibre length, fibre diameter, fibre diameter distribution, cashmere yield (% by weight), estimated secondary/primary skin follicle ratios (S/P) and crimping of cashmere were measured. Adult bucks had longer (P 30 μm. The implications of these observations for processing cashmere and managing cashmere goats are discussed and estimates of the commercial cashmere production of Liaoning goats are given.

Ninety adult, castrated cashmere goats, typical of animals kept for commercial cashmere production in southern Australia, were slaughtered at a commercial abattoir and carcasses boned out at a commercial boning works. Liveweights ranged from 27.5 to 79.0 kg and hot carcass weight from 12.1 and 32.6 kg. Hot carcass weight increased 427 g for every 1 kg increase in liveweight. GR tissue depth ranged from 3.4 to 11.0 mm (mean 6.4 mm). Goats weighing > 44 kg liveweight with body condition scores > 2 produced carcasses weighing more than 20 kg and had boneless meat yields of 64.2 ± 0.1% (mean ± SE) hot carcass weight and 66.8 ± 0.2% of cold carcass weight. Boneless meat yield declined to 61.1% of hot carcass weight for hot carcasses weighing 13.8 kg. Boneless goat meat increased 307 g and 670 g for every 1 kg increase in liveweight and hot carcass weight respectively. As hot carcass weight increased, boneless meat: bone ratios increased from 1.98 to 2.39 and fat trim from 2.2% to 6.6%. Boneless goat meat accounted for 95.8% of the total wholesale value and the fillet (mean weight 172 g) an additional 2.9%. Regression equations indicated liveweight and hot carcass weight were excellent predictors (r ≥ 0.99) of boneless goat meat yields. The accuracy and use of carcass length, GR tissue depth and body condition score in precision of prediction equations are discussed. Economic value was related directly to liveweight and carcass weight (r ≥ 0.99). The paper discusses the scope that exists for processors of boneless goat meat to encourage supply of heavier adult goats in good body condition.

Gastrointestinal nematodes limit the growth, production and welfare of goats but there are few reliable sources of information for recommending management practices across flocks. The effects of animal species (Angora goat, Merino sheep, mixed-grazed goats and mixed-grazed sheep at the ratio of 1 : 1) and stocking rate (SR: 7.5, 10, 12.5 animals/ha) on gastrointestinal parasitism were determined in a replicated experiment on improved annual temperate pastures in southern Australia, from 1981 to 1984. Detailed monitoring of gastrointestinal nematodes was undertaken on animals before, during (five times per year) and at the conclusion of studies using faecal strongyle egg counts (WEC) and total worm counts. Sheep had a greater proportion of nematodes as Teladorsagia spp. and goats a greater incidence of Trichostrongylus spp. Both goats and sheep developed resistance to Nematodirus spp. during the experiment. WEC was similar in goats and sheep at the start of the experimental period but, thereafter, was consistently greater in goats than in sheep. While WEC was highly related to total worm count, the regressions for sheep and goats were different. Increasing the SR increased the WEC of goats and mixed-grazed goats but not of sheep. During the experiment, WEC declined at 7 and 10 animals/ha but increased at 12.5/ha. Mixed grazing with goats provided beneficial effects for sheep at all stocking rates, but the effects for goats were dependent on the stocking rate, being beneficial at 7.5 and 10/ha but harmful at 12.5/ha. The WEC of separately grazed goats were generally higher than the WEC of mixed grazed goats. The WEC of mixed sheep were lower than those of separately grazed sheep. During the experiment, the WEC of mixed grazed sheep declined faster than the WEC of separately grazed sheep but the WEC of separately grazed goats at 12.5/ha and of mixed grazed goats at 10 and 12.5/ha increased. Under the environmental and pastoral conditions examined, Angora wether goats should not be grazed at SR above those recommended for wether sheep. In the present study, the impact of gastrointestinal-nematode infections in goats was reduced at lower SR. Further, mixed grazing of Angora wether goats with wether sheep at or below the recommended SR resulted in reduced gastrointestinal parasitism for both sheep and goats, compared with monospecific grazing conditions. Goats did not represent a gastrointestinal-nematode hazard to sheep.

Previous work has shown that, within an Angora goat flock, clean fleece weight is proportional to fleece-free liveweight (FFLwt)2/3 and for goats of the same age and cohort, the mean mohair fibre diameter is proportional to FFLwt1/3. This indicates that fibre length might not be related to the size of animals. This study examines how mohair staple length (SL) is related to FFLwt of Angora goats of different genetic origins over their lifetime and how the relationship varies with other lifetime factors. Measurements were made over 11 shearing periods on a population of Angora goats representing the current range and diversity of genetic origins in Australia, including South African, Texan and interbred admixtures of these and Australian sources. Records of breed, sire, dam, date of birth, dam age, birthweight, birth parity, weaning weight, liveweight, fleece growth and fleece quality were taken for castrated males (wethers) (n = 94 animals). FFLwt were determined for each goat at shearing time by subtracting the greasy fleece weight from the liveweight recorded immediately before shearing. The average of the FFLwt at the start of the period and the FFLWt at the end of the period was calculated. Liveweight change (LwtCh) was the change in FFLwt over the period between shearings. A restricted maximum likelihood model was developed for SL, which allowed the observations of the same animal at different ages to be correlated in an unstructured manner. Average SL differed from ~12.0 to ~14.5 cm, depending on age. There were no consistent effects of season. At any age, an increase of 10 kg LwtCh between animals results in about a 0.34 (s.e. = 0.087) cm increase in SL. There was no evidence of an effect of FFLwt on SL. The results confirm our hypothesis that within a single age cohort of Angora goats, there is very little, if any, relationship between the liveweight and SL of individual animals. This implies that the biological determinants of size of fibres related to cross-sectional area are substantially different to the size determinants of fibre length.

Clean fleece weight (CFWt) is affected by liveweight and change in liveweight in Merino sheep, Angora and cashmere goats. However, how these relationships progress as animals age has not been elucidated. Measurements were made over 12 shearing periods on a population of Angora goats representing the current range and diversity of genetic origins including South African, Texan and interbred admixtures of these and Australian sources. Records of breed, sire, dam, date of birth, dam age, birthweight, birth parity, weaning weight, liveweight, fleece growth and fleece quality were taken for does and castrated males (wethers) (n = 267 animals). Fleece-free liveweights (FFLwt) were determined for each goat at shearing time by subtracting the greasy fleece weight from the liveweight recorded immediately before shearing. The average of the FFLwt at the start of the period and the FFLWt at the end of the period was calculated (AvFFLwt). Liveweight change (LwtCh) was the change in FFLwt over the period between shearings. A restricted maximum likelihood model was developed for CFWt, after log10 transformation, which allowed the observations of the same animal at different ages to be correlated in an unstructured manner. A simple way of describing the results is: CFWt = κ (AvFFLwt)β, where κ is a parameter that can vary in a systematic way with shearing age, shearing treatment and LwtCh; and β is an allometric coefficient that only varies with LwtCh. CFWt was proportional to FFLwt0.67 but only when liveweight was lost at the rate of 5–10 kg during a shearing interval of 6 months. The allometric coefficient declined to 0.3 as LwtCh increased from 10 kg loss to 20 kg gain during a shearing interval. A consequence is that, within an age group of Angora goats, the largest animals will be the least efficient in converting improved nutrition to mohair.

American bison grow a thick coat of fibres which assists them to withstand severe climatic conditions. Bison fibre was traditionally used in textiles by native North Americans. This study aimed to quantify the production, fibre attributes and dehairing processing of bison fibre produced from bison grazed in north-eastern Victoria. Three age/sex classes were sampled (n = 16) at seven body positions in spring. The fibre growing area was measured. Fibre was tested for diameter distribution, clean washing yield, proportion of fine fibres

We aimed to quantify the number, type and arrangement of skin follicles in Huacaya and Suri alpaca skin and correlate their follicle characteristics with fibre traits of harvested fibre and compared these relationships with those of Merino sheep. Fibre and skin samples were collected from the mid-side of 12 Huacaya alpacas, 24 Suri alpacas and 10 Merino sheep. The mean fibre diameter (MFD ± s.e.) of the Huacaya and Suri were: 35.5 ± 0.9 and 28.3 ± 1.0 μm, respectively. The follicle groups found for alpacas were very different from the normal trio of primary follicles found in sheep and goats. The follicle group of the alpacas consisted of a single primary follicle surrounded by a variable number of secondary follicles. The mean ± s.e. primary follicle density was 3.1 ± 0.3 and 2.7 ± 0.1 follicles/mm2 for Huacaya and Suri, respectively. The mean ± s.e. secondary follicle density (SFD) was 13.7 ± 1.2 and 17.5 ± 0.6 follicles/mm2 for Huacaya and Suri, respectively. The mean ± s.e. ratio of secondary to primary follicles (S/P ratio) was 5.1 ± 0.5 for the Huacaya and 7.3 ± 0.2 for the Suri alpacas. The sheep had higher S/P ratios and SFD, lower MFD and produced significantly heavier fleeces. The key correlations found between traits in alpacas include a negative correlation between SFD and MFD (r = –0.71, P = 0.001) and a negative correlation between S/P ratio and MFD (r = –0.44, P = 0.003) and a positive correlation between S/P ratio and total follicle density (r = 0.38, P = 0.010). The study revealed that important relationships exist between alpaca skin follicle characteristics and fibre characteristics. It was the number of secondary follicles in a group that imparts density and a corresponding reduced MFD.

While white cashmere is preferred by processors, its whiteness and brightness is affected by country of origin, amino acid composition, nutrition and cashmere production of goats. This work aimed to quantify the factors which affect the whiteness and brightness of 36 batches of processed Australian white cashmere sourced from nine different farms. The cashmere was tested for tristimulus values brightness (Y) and whiteness, as measured by yellowness (Y-Z). Linear models, relating Y and Y-Z were fitted to farm of origin and other objective measurements. Mean attributes (range) were: mean fibre diameter, 16.9 µm (13.9–20.4 μm); fibre curvature, 45°/mm (31–59°/mm); clean washing yield, 91.3% (79.5–97.3%); Y, 78.7 (74.7–82.2); Y-Z, 11.9 (10.3–13.6). Farm alone accounted for 72% of the variation in Y and 65% of the variation in Y-Z (P < 0.001). Once farm had been taken into account only fibre curvature (P = 0.003) was significant in predicting Y and only clean washing yield (P = 0.047) affected Y-Z. Neither the proportion of the fleece present as guard hair (clean cashmere yield) nor cashmere staple length was a significant determinant of Y or Y-Z. For each 10°/mm increase in fibre curvature Y increased 1.3 units. For each 10% increase in clean washing yield Y-Z declined 0.9 units. Variations in Y and Y-Z among farms were probably related to differences in geographic and climatic conditions and were significantly correlated to cashmere production. The effect of clean washing yield was probably related to a reduction in suint content.

As mean fibre diameter (MFD) is the primary determinant of mohair price we aimed to quantify the lifetime changes in mohair MFD as Angora goats aged and grew. Measurements were made over 12 shearing periods on a population of Angora goats representing the current range and diversity of genetic origins including South African, Texan and interbred admixtures of these and Australian sources. Records of sire, dam, birthweight, birth parity, liveweight, fleece growth and fleece quality were taken for does and castrated males (wethers) (n = 267 animals). Fleece-free liveweights (FFLwt) were determined for each goat at shearing time by subtracting the greasy fleece weight from the liveweight recorded immediately before shearing. A restricted maximum likelihood growth curve model was developed for relating MFD to FFLwt, age and other measurements. A simple way of describing the results is: MFD = κ (FFLwt)β E; where κ is a parameter that can vary in a systematic way with shearing(age), breed, weaning weight, sire, dam and individual; β is a parameter that is the same for nearly the whole study; and E are independent errors from a log-normal distribution. The analysis shows that = 0.34, with s.e. () = 0.021. Thus, mohair MFD was allometrically related to the cube root of FFLwt over the lifetime of Angora goats. However, the allometric proportionality constant differed in a systematic way with age at shearing, genetic strain, weaning weight, sire, dam and individual. For Texan-breed goats, MFD decreased as weaning weight increased (P = 0.00016). The findings indicate that management factors that affect liveweight and weaning weight have lifetime effects on mohair fibre diameter and therefore the value of mohair and the profitability of the mohair enterprise.

Cashmere goats and Merino sheep were grazed together at 7.5 animals per ha on annual rye grass and clover pasture in southern Victoria, a winter rainfall area. Intake of parasitic larvae was measured in oesophageal extrusa samples collected from 2 animals of each species, 4 times in one week, on 7 occasions between mid-March (autumn) and mid-June (winter). Pasture contamination with larvae was measured at the same times. The number of larvae per kg of green grass was lower than on green clover; the most heavily contaminated portion of the pasture was the mat of dead herbage on the ground. The diet selected by goats contained more green grass and dead herbage and less clover that that of sheep (P < 0.01). Goats ingested 643 infective trichostrongylid larvae per kg dry matter intake (DMI) versus 274 per kg DMI for sheep in autumn, increasing to 1892 versus 1143 in early winter. The heavier trichostrongylid burdens of goats compared with sheep, when grazed together, are due in part to greater rates of infection consequent on different grazing patterns as well as greater susceptibility to infection.