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Astyanax brucutu is a peculiar species of Neotropical tetra endemic from the Chapada Diamantina, a large plateau in northeastern Brazil. Individuals of this species undergo a dramatic ontogenetic shift in their diet that is accompanied by equally remarkable changes in their feeding apparatus. Whereas juveniles of A. brucutu feed mostly on algae, adults feed almost exclusively on an endemic species of hydrobiid snail and other associated living organisms that inhabit their dead shells (including infaunal invertebrates and algae). Skeletal adaptations associated with this change in diet were previously reported, but until now, the changes in the musculature remained mostly unknown. The present paper describes the facial and gular muscles, as well as the buccal ligaments of A. brucutu in different life stages, and identifies the major ontogenetic changes in these systems associated with the diet shift in the species. Such changes primarily involve expansions of specific portions of the adductor mandibulae and associated tendons and ligaments that likely represent adaptations to increase the biting power necessary to crush copious amounts of shells ingested by larger individuals of A. brucutu. Those adaptations are absent in specimens of any size of Astyanax cf. fasciatus, a sympatric congener lacking durophagous feeding habits. Anatomical comparisons and landmark-based principal components analysis (PCA) suggest that most specializations to durophagy in A. brucutu arose by peramorphosis. We also found that several of the muscular specializations of adults of A. brucutu are paralleled in species of Creagrutus and Piabina, two other characid genera distantly related to Astyanax, but that also feed on hard food items.

The Polynemidae is a family of primarily marine fishes with eight genera and 42 extant species. Many aspects of their morphology are largely unknown, with few reports about their osteology and barely any information on their myology. This paper describes and illustrates in detail all facial and branchial muscles of representative species of polynemids. Our analysis demonstrates the existence of several remarkable and previously unknown specializations in the polynemid musculature. The aponeurotic and completely independent origin of the pars promalaris of the adductor mandibulae is apparently unique among percomorphs. The differentiation of this section into lateral and medial subsections; the total separation of the promalaris from the retromalaris; the differentiation of the pars primordialis of the levator arcus palatini into external and internal subsections are also uncommon features of polynemids that are shared by sciaenids, thus supporting the hypothesis of a closer relationship between these families.

The lateral-line system has been traditionally recognized as an important source of phylogenetic information for different groups of fishes. Although extensively studied in Siluriformes and Cypriniformes, the lateral-line system of Characiformes remained underexplored. In the present study, the anatomy of the cephalic lateral-line canals of characiforms is described in detail and a unifying terminology that considers the ontogeny and homologies of the components of this system is offered. Aspects of the arrangement of lateral-line canals, as well as the number, location and size of canal tubules and pores, resulted in the identification of novel putative synapomorphies for Characiformes and several of its subgroups. The study also revised synapomorphies previously proposed for different characiform families and provided comments on their observed distribution across the order based on extensive taxon sampling. Information from the ontogenetic studies of the cephalic lateral-line canal system and a proposal for the proper use of these data to detect truncations in the development of the lateral-line canals across the order is also offered.

A new species of ghost knifefish, Apteronotus, is described from high-energy environments in the Rios Mapuera and Trombetas (at Cachoeira Porteira waterfalls), Brazil. X-ray microcomputed tomography (μCT scan) was used to access the internal anatomy of the type series. The new species is distinguished from all congeners by the anteriormost position of the anus, with its posterior margin extending less than one eye diameter beyond the vertical through the caudal limit of the posterior nostril, the low number of anal-fin rays (117-125) and the reduced number of branchiostegal rays (three). A series of modifications associated with secondary sexual dimorphism on the preorbital region of mature males are depicted and discussed. In addition, comments on homologies of the branchiostegal rays in Apteronotidae are provided.

The most remarkable anatomical specialization of threadfins (Percomorphacea: Polynemidae) is the division of their pectoral fin into an upper, unmodified fin and a lower portion with rays highly modified into specialized filaments. Such filaments are usually elongate, free from interradial membrane, and move independently from the unmodified fin to explore the environment. The evolution of the pectoral filaments involved several morphological modifications herein detailed for the first time. The posterior articular facet of the coracoid greatly expands anteroventrally during development. Similar expansions occur in pectoral radials 3 and 4, with the former usually acquiring indentations with the surrounding bones and losing association with both rays and filaments. Whereas most percomorphs typically have four or five muscles serving the pectoral fin, adult polynemids have up to 11 independent divisions in the intrinsic pectoral musculature. The main adductor and abductor muscles masses of the pectoral system are completely divided into two muscle segments, each independently serving the pectoral-fin rays (dorsally) and the pectoral filaments (ventrally). Based on the innervation pattern and the discovery of terminal buds in the external surface of the filaments, we demonstrate for the first time that the pectoral filaments of threadfins have both tactile and gustatory functions.

The morphology of the articular region of the pectoral girdle and associated basals in Etmopteridae is revised in light of new evidence provided by taxa unavailable for previous studies. Such studies considered that etmopterids plesiomorphically had a single pectoral articular condyle, and only Etmopterus had two separate ones. Our reanalysis indicates that the possession of two separate condyles, one for the articulation of the propterygium and the second for the meso- and metapterygium, is the most widespread condition in this group. However, the presence of two separate articular condyles is not recovered as a synapomorphy for Etmopteridae. Previous studies also proposed that etmopterids lack a hook-like process on the anteroproximal margin of the anteriormost pectoral basal. We document that the hook-like process is plesiomorphically present in Etmopteridae, thus corroborating the hypothesis of closer relationships between this family and the other squaliforms that also share this process, namely Centrophoridae, Dalatiidae, Oxynotidae, and Somniosidae.

A detailed osteological study of the poorly known and critical endangered ghost knifefish, Tembeassu marauna, from the rio Parana, Brazil, was conducted using X-ray microcomputed tomography (μCT scan). A redescription of the external anatomy was performed, including the unusual presence of a rostral patch of extra teeth on the region of the upper lip anterior to the premaxilla and the prominent anterior fleshy expansions in both upper and lower lips. The newly surveyed characters were included and analyzed in light of a recent morphological data matrix for Gymnotiformes. In spite of some uncertainties that remains as to phylogenetic allocation of the genus, the most probable hypothesis is that Tembeassu is the sister group of a clade that includes Megadontognathus and Apteronotus sensu stricto. The phylogenetic analysis also supports that Tembeassu is considered a valid genus of Apteronotidae. An amended diagnosis for the genus is also provided.

The Characidae is the most diverse family of Neotropical fishes, currently encompassing more than one thousand valid spe-cies. Some subgroups within this family still lack phylogenetic definitions, being diagnosed on the basis of combination of characters, a common procedure in pre-cladistic studies. Agoniatinae, currently composed by two valid species, Agoniates anchovia and A. halecinus , is one of them. In the present study the Agoniatinae is redefined using a phylogenetically oriented comparative survey that included the two Agoniates species plus 114 species representing all the major clades of the Charac-idae and their closest relatives. Six derived morphological characters are identified as synapomorphies for the Agoniatinae: deep notch on the posterior region of the maxilla joining the ventral margin of the infraorbital 2; dentigerous portion of pre-maxilla shorter than the ascending process of this bone; dentary canine preceded by tricuspid teeth; ventral margin of the urohyal markedly convex; base of the uppermost ray of the ventral lobe of the caudal fin much expanded, being as deep as the distal margin of hypural 2; and levator arcus palatini muscle with a posterodorsal bundle of fibers attaching to the dorsal face of the sphenotic spine.

The infraclass Teleostei is a highly diversified group of bony fishes that encompasses 96% of all species of living fishes and almost half of extant vertebrates. Evolution of various morphological complexes in teleosts, particularly those involving soft anatomy, remains poorly understood. Notable among these problematic complexes is the adductor mandibulae, the muscle that provides the primary force for jaw adduction and mouth closure and whose architecture varies from a simple arrangement of two segments to an intricate complex of up to ten discrete subdivisions. The present study analyzed multiple morphological attributes of the adductor mandibulae in representatives of 53 of the 55 extant teleostean orders, as well as significant information from the literature in order to elucidate the homologies of the main subdivisions of this muscle. The traditional alphanumeric terminology applied to the four main divisions of the adductor mandibulae - A1, A2, A3, and Aω - patently fails to reflect homologous components of that muscle across the expanse of the Teleostei. Some features traditionally used as landmarks for identification of some divisions of the adductor mandibulae proved highly variable across the Teleostei; notably the insertion on the maxilla and the position of muscle components relative to the path of the ramus mandibularis trigeminus nerve. The evolutionary model of gain and loss of sections of the adductor mandibulae most commonly adopted under the alphanumeric system additionally proved ontogenetically incongruent and less parsimonious than a model of subdivision and coalescence of facial muscle sections. Results of the analysis demonstrate the impossibility of adapting the alphanumeric terminology so as to reflect homologous entities across the spectrum of teleosts. A new nomenclatural scheme is proposed in order to achieve congruence between homology and nomenclature of the adductor mandibulae components across the entire Teleostei.

The Characiformes are distributed throughout large portions of the freshwaters of Africa and America. About 90% of the almost 2000 characiform species inhabit the American rivers, with their greatest diversity occurring in the Neotropical region. As in most other groups of fishes, the current knowledge about characiform myology is extremely poor. This study presents the results of a survey of the mandibular, hyopalatine, and opercular musculature of 65 species representing all the 18 traditionally recognized characiform families, including the 14 subfamilies and several genera incertae sedis of the Characidae, the most speciose family of the order. The morphological variation of these muscles across the order is documented in detail and the homologies of the characiform adductor mandibulae divisions are clarified. Accordingly, the mistaken nomenclature previously applied to these divisions in some characiform taxa is herein corrected. Contradicting some previous studies, we found that none of the examined characiforms lacks an A3 section of the adductor mandibulae, but instead some taxa have an A3 continuous with A2. Derived myological features are identified as new putative synapomorphies for: the Characoidei; the clade composed of the Alestidae, Characidae, Gasteropelecidae, Cynodontoidea, and Erythrinoidea; the clade Cynodontoidea plus Erythrinoidea; the clade formed by Ctenoluciidae and Erythrinidae; the Serrasalminae; and the Triportheinae. Additionally, new myological data seems to indicate that the Agoniatinae might be more closely related to cynodontoids and erythrinoids than to other characids.

The muscles serving the ventral portion of the gill arches ( = infrabranchial musculature) are poorly known in bony fishes. A comparative analysis of the infrabranchial muscles in the major percomorph lineages reveals a large amount of phylogenetically-relevant information. Characters derived from this anatomical system are identified and discussed in light of current hypotheses of phylogenetic relationships among percomorphs. New evidence supports a sister-group relationship between the Batrachoidiformes and Lophiiformes and between the Callionymoidei and Gobiesocoidei. Investigated data also corroborate the existence of two monophyletic groups, one including the Pristolepididae, Badidae, and Nandidae, and a second clade consisting of all non-amarsipid stromateiforms. New synapomorphies are proposed for the Atherinomorphae, Blenniiformes, Lophiiformes, Scombroidei (including Sphyraenidae), and Gobiiformes. Within the latter order, the Rhyacichthyidae and Odontobutidae are supported as the successive sister families of all remaining gobiiforms. The present analysis further confirms the validity of infrabranchial musculature characters previously proposed to support the grouping of the Mugiliformes with the Atherinomorphae and the monophyly of the Labriformes with the possible inclusion of the Pholidichthyiformes. Interestingly, most hypotheses of relationships supported by the infrabranchial musculature have been advanced by preceding anatomists on the basis of distinct data sources, but were never recovered in recent molecular phylogenies. These conflicts clearly indicate the current unsatisfactory resolution of the higher-level phylogeny of percomorphs.

A new species of the trichomycterid catfish genus Ituglanis is described from the Rio Curua, Rio Xingu basin, Rio Amazonas drainage, Brazil. Ituglanis apteryx, new species, is promptly distinguished from congeners, except some specimens of I. parahybae (Eigenmann), by the absence of pelvic fins, girdle, and muscles. The new species differs from I. parahybae in the pattern of the cephalic laterosensory system; the absence of a posterior cranial fontanel; the presence of an epural; and the number of branchiostegal rays, ribs, and vertebrae. Ituglanis apteryx is one among the several trichomycterids lacking pelvic fins. Analysis reveals that pelvic fin loss independently evolved several times during the trichomycterid radiation.

Polypteridae é um grupo de peixes de água doce e salobra que ocorre atualmente apenas em regiões tropicais da África. As 14 espécies viventes de polipterídeos estão distribuídas em dois gêneros, Polypterus (bichirs, 13 espécies) e Calamoichthys (o peixe-corda, C. calabaricus). O grupo atrai interesse especial dos pesquisadores devido à sua peculiar anatomia que combina características observadas em diferentes grupos viventes e extintos de vertebrados, com caracteres exclusivos, como a presença de um tipo único de nadadeira dorsal. Essa combinação singular de características dificulta o estabelecimento de sua posição filogenética, embora sejam considerados atualmente o grupo irmão de todos os peixes de nadadeiras raiadas viventes, ocupando uma posição filogenética chave entre os peixes ósseos. Nesse contexto, compreender em detalhes sua anatomia é fundamental para entender a história evolutiva dos vertebrados como um todo e particularmente dos peixes ósseos. O presente estudo consiste de uma revisão sobre a anatomia dos polipterídeos, enfatizando sistemas e complexos mofológicos pouco explorados, como os sistemas laterossensorial e musculoesquelético, em uma abordagem holística. Integramos a análise de espécimes vivos, espécimes preservados em coleções (preservados em etanol ou preparações secas do esqueleto), espécimes corados e dissecados, radiografias, e modelos tridimensionais gerados por tomografia computadorizada. A análise é focada no bichir do Senegal, Polypterus senegalus, mas inclui vários espécimes de diferentes tamanhos de todas as espécies de polipterídeos, incluindo espécimes-tipo de quase todas elas. Foram incluídas informações da ontogenia, com base em uma análise das séries de desenvolvimento de P. senegalus e de representantes dos demais grupos de peixes actinopterígios não-teleósteos (Acipenseriformes, Lepisosteiformes e Amiiformes). O estudo também inclui uma extensa revisão da literatura sobre a anatomia e relações filogenéticas dos polipterídeos e outros peixes ósseos basais. Várias novas interpretações sobre a anatomia dos polipterídeos e dos demais peixes ósseos são apresentadas, muitas dos quais são incorporadas em novas propostas de terminologia anatômica para Actinopterygii ou para Osteichthyes. Também é apresentada uma análise detalhada da variação intra- e interespecífica na anatomia externa dos polipterídeos, que será útil em futuras tentativas de desvendar sua taxonomia e inter-relações filogenéticas. O presente estudo demonstra que, mesmo considerando todos os esforços anteriores, ainda há muito a ser conhecido sobre a anatomia dos polipterídeos, bem como de outros grupos basais de peixes ósseos. Muitas dessas informações podem ser incorporadas em estudos filogenéticos, a fim de aperfeiçoar as hipóteses sobre as relações evolutivas entre os principais clados de Vertebrata, e também podem fornecer novas idéias sobre a anatomia e a história evolutiva dos vertebrados. Polypteridae is a group of freshwater and brackish water fishes currently ocurring exclusively in tropical regions of Africa. The 14 extant species of polypterids are distributed in two genera, Polypterus (bichirs, 13 species) and Calamoichthys (the reedfish, C. calabaricus). The group attracts special interest of researchers due to their peculiar anatomy that combines features observed in different groups of living and extinct vertebrates with exclusive characters such as the presence of a unique type of dorsal fin. The singular combination of characteristics difficults establishing the phylogenetic position of polypterids, although they are considered nowadays the sister-group of all living ray-finned fishes, occupying a key phylogenetic position among the bony fishes. In this context, understanding in details their anatomy is crucial for understanding the evolutionary history of vertebrates as a whole and particularly of bony fishes. The present study consists of a revisionary investigation of the anatomy of polypterids, emphasizing underexplored mophological systems and complexes such as the laterosensory and musculoskeletal systems, on a holistic approach. We integrate the analysis of living specimens, specimens preserved in collections (ethanol-preserved and dry-skeleton preparations), stained and dissected specimens, radiographs, and tridimensional models generated by computadorized tomography. The analysis focuses on the Senegal Bichir, Polypterus senegalus, but includes several specimens of different sizes of all species of polypterids, including types of almost all of them. We include information from early ontogeny, with basis on an analysis of developmental series of P. senegalus and of representatives of the remaining groups of non-teleost actinopterygians (Acipenseriformes, Lepisosteiformes and Amiiformes). The study also includes an extensive revision of the literature on the anatomy and phylogenetic relationships of polypterids and other basal bony fishes. We provide several new interpretations about the anatomy of polypterids and other bony fishes, many of which are incorporated into new proposals of anatomical terminology for Actinopterygii or for Osteichthyes. We also provide a detailed analysis of the intra- and interspecific variation on the external anatomy of polypterids that will be useful in future attempts to unravel their taxonomy and phylogenetic interrelationships. The present study demonstrates that, even considering all the efforts by previous authors, there is still a lot to be known regarding the anatomy of polypterids, as well as of other basal groups of bony fishes. Much of this information can be incorporated into phylogenetic studies in order to improve our hypotheses of evolutionary relationships between the major clades of Vertebrata, and can also provide new ideas about the anatomy and evolutionary history of vertebrates.