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The aggregation of β-amyloid peptide 42 results in the formation of toxic oligomers and plaques, which plays a pivotal role in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. Aβ42 is one of several Aβ peptides, all of Aβ30 to Aβ43 that are produced as a result of γ-secretase-mediated regulated intramembrane proteolysis of the amyloid precursor protein. γ-Secretase modulators (GSMs) represent a promising class of Aβ42-lowering anti-amyloidogenic compounds for the treatment of AD. Gamma-secretase modulators change the relative proportion of secreted Aβ peptides, while sparing the γ-secretase-mediated processing event resulting in the release of the cytoplasmic APP intracellular domain. In this study, we have characterized how GSMs affect the γ-secretase cleavage of three γ-secretase substrates, E-cadherin, ephrin type A receptor 4 (EphA4) and ephrin type B receptor 2 (EphB2), which all are implicated in important contexts of cell signalling. By using a reporter gene assay, we demonstrate that the γ-secretase-dependent generation of EphA4 and EphB2 intracellular domains is unaffected by GSMs. We also show that γ-secretase processing of EphA4 and EphB2 results in the release of several Aβ-like peptides, but that only the production of Aβ-like proteins from EphA4 is modulated by GSMs, but with an order of magnitude lower potency as compared to Aβ modulation. Collectively, these results suggest that GSMs are selective for γ-secretase-mediated Aβ production., (© 2021 The Authors. Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine published by Foundation for Cellular and Molecular Medicine and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

BACE1-mediated cleavage of APP is a pivotal step in the production of the Alzheimer related Aβ peptide and inhibitors of BACE1 are currently in clinical development for the treatment of Alzheimer disease (AD). While processing and trafficking of APP has been extensively studied in non-neuronal cells, the fate of APP at neuronal synapses and in response to reduced BACE1 activity has not been fully elucidated. Here we examined the consequence of reduced BACE1 activity on endogenous synaptic APP by monitoring N- and C-terminal APP epitopes by immunocytochemistry. In control rodent primary hippocampal neuron cultures, labeling with antibodies directed to N-terminal APP epitopes showed a significant overlap with synaptic vesicle markers (SV2 or synaptotagmin). In contrast, labeling with antibodies directed to C-terminal epitopes of APP showed only a limited overlap with these proteins. In neurons derived from BACE1-deficient mice, and in control neurons treated with a BACE1 inhibitor, both the N-terminal and the C-terminal APP labeling overlapped significantly with synaptic vesicle markers. Moreover, BACE1 inhibition increased the proximity between the APP C-terminus and SV2 as shown by a proximity ligation assay. These results, together with biochemical observations, indicate that BACE1 can regulate the levels of full-length APP at neuronal synapses., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd and Japan Neuroscience Society. All rights reserved.)

Processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by γ-secretase results in generation of Aβ peptides of different lengths ranging from 51 to 30 residues. Accumulation of Aβ and in particular Aβ42 is enhanced by familial Alzheimer disease (FAD) causing mutations in APP and is believed to play a pivotal role. The molecular mechanism underlying normal Aβ production, the impact of FAD mutations on this process and how anti-amyloidogenic γ-secretase modulators (GSMs) cause a selective decrease in Aβ40 and Aβ42 and an increase in shorter Aβ peptides, however, is poorly understood. By using a combined immuno- and LC-MS-based assay we identify several major intermediates, i.e. 3- and 4-peptides that line up head to head across the entire APP transmembrane sequence from Aβ51 to Aβ31/Aβ30 and from Aβ49 to Aβ30/31. FAD APP mutations displayed a relative increase in 3- and 4-peptides from Aβ48 to Aβ38 compared with Aβ49 to Aβ37. These findings correlate with an increase in the Aβ42/40 ratio. GSMs caused a decrease in Aβ40 and Aβ42 and an increase in Aβ37 and Aβ38 paralleled by an increase of the intermediates Aβ40-38 and Aβ42-39. Collectively, these data provide a thorough characterization of all intermediate steps in Aβ production in native cell membranes and provide key mechanistic insights to genetic and pharmacological modulation of Aβ generation.

The γ-secretase complex is an appealing drug target when the therapeutic strategy is to alter amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) aggregation in Alzheimer disease. γ-Secretase is directly involved in Aβ formation and determines the pathogenic potential of Aβ by generating the aggregation-prone Aβ42 peptide. Because γ-secretase mediates cleavage of many substrates involved in cell signaling, such as the Notch receptor, it is crucial to sustain these pathways while altering the Aβ secretion. A way of avoiding interference with the physiological function of γ-secretase is to use γ-secretase modulators (GSMs) instead of inhibitors of the enzyme. GSMs modify the Aβ formation from producing the amyloid-prone Aβ42 variant to shorter and less amyloidogenic Aβ species. The modes of action of GSMs are not fully understood, and even though the pharmacology of GSMs has been thoroughly studied regarding Aβ generation, knowledge is lacking about their effects on other substrates, such as Notch. Here, using immunoprecipitation followed by MALDI-TOF MS analysis, we found that two novel, second generation GSMs modulate both Notch β and Aβ production. Moreover, by correlating S3-specific Val-1744 cleavage of Notch intracellular domain (Notch intracellular domain) to total Notch intracellular domain levels using immunocytochemistry, we also demonstrated that Notch intracellular domain is not modulated by the compounds. Interestingly, two well characterized, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug), R-flurbiprofen and sulindac sulfide, affect only Aβ and not Notch β formation, indicating that second generation GSMs and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-based GSMs have different modes of action regarding Notch processing.

γ-Secretase-mediated cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP) results in the production of Alzheimer disease-related amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides. The Aβ42 peptide in particular plays a pivotal role in Alzheimer disease pathogenesis and represents a major drug target. Several γ-secretase modulators (GSMs), such as the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (R)-flurbiprofen and sulindac sulfide, have been suggested to modulate the Alzheimer-related Aβ production by targeting the APP. Here, we describe novel GSMs that are selective for Aβ modulation and do not impair processing of Notch, EphB2, or EphA4. The GSMs modulate Aβ both in cell and cell-free systems as well as lower amyloidogenic Aβ42 levels in the mouse brain. Both radioligand binding and cellular cross-competition experiments reveal a competitive relationship between the AstraZeneca (AZ) GSMs and the established second generation GSM, E2012, but a noncompetitive interaction between AZ GSMs and the first generation GSMs (R)-flurbiprofen and sulindac sulfide. The binding of a (3)H-labeled AZ GSM analog does not co-localize with APP but overlaps anatomically with a γ-secretase targeting inhibitor in rodent brains. Combined, these data provide compelling evidence of a growing class of in vivo active GSMs, which are selective for Aβ modulation and have a different mechanism of action compared with the original class of GSMs described.

beta-Secretase (BACE) is an aspartyl protease, which proteolytically processes amyloid precursor protein, making BACE an interesting pharmacological target in Alzheimer's disease. To study the enzymatic function of BACE, we mutated either of the two aspartic acid residues in the active site of BACE. This rendered BACE functionally inactive without affecting the degree of glycosylation or endosomal localization. In contrast, substituting both active site aspartic acid residues produced a functionally inactive, endoplasmic reticulum-retained and partially glycosylated BACE. Interestingly, co-expression of the two single active site mutants partially restored beta-site cleavage of amyloid precursor protein, and the restored activity was inhibited with similar dose-dependency and potency as wildtype BACE by a small molecule inhibitor raised against BACE. In sum, our data suggest that two different active site mutants can complement each other in a partially functional BACE dimer and mediate APP processing., (Copyright 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

One of the cardinal neuropathological findings in brains from Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients is the occurrence of amyloid beta-peptide (Abeta) deposits. The gamma-secretase-mediated intramembrane proteolysis event generating Abeta also results in the release of the APP intracellular domain (AICD), which may mediate nuclear signaling. It was recently shown that AICD starts at a position distal to the site predicted from gamma-secretase cleavage within the membrane. This novel site, the epsilon site, is located close to the inner leaflet of the membrane bilayer. The relationship between proteolysis at the gamma and epsilon sites has not been fully characterized. Here we studied AICD signaling in intact cells using a chimeric C99 molecule and a luciferase reporter system. We show that the release of AICD from the membrane takes place in a compartment downstream of the endoplasmic reticulum, is dependent on presenilin proteins, and can be inhibited by treatment with established gamma-secretase inhibitors. Moreover, we find that AICD signaling remains unaltered from C99 derivatives containing mutations associated with increased Abeta42 production and familial AD. These findings indicate that there are very similar routes for Abeta and AICD formation but that FAD-linked mutations in APP primarily affect gamma-secretase-mediated Abeta42 formation, and not AICD signaling.