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Game meat may contain elevated concentrations of lead especially if lead-containing ammunition is used for hunting. Then a health risk is possible for consumer groups with high game meat intake. The lead concentrations in three edible parts (marketable meat from the area close to the wound channel, saddle and haunch) of meat from red deer (Cervus elaphus) between animals hunted either with lead or non‑lead ammunition were compared. Furthermore, lead levels in game meat of lead-shot red deer were compared with those of lead-shot roe deer and lead-shot wild boar. Ninety red deer were shot and killed in the context of this study (64 with lead and 26 with non‑lead ammunition). Since the lead concentration for a number of the samples was below the limit of detection or the limit of quantification, statistical methods for left-censored data were applied. The median concentrations of lead in game meat did not differ significantly between lead shot and non‑lead shot animals. However, when we analyzed the more elevated lead concentrations, they were significantly higher in edible parts of animals shot with lead ammunition than non-lead ammunition. The highest concentrations were found in samples from edible meat from the area close to the wound channel (max 3442 mg Pb/kg), followed by the saddle (max 1.14 mg Pb/kg) and with the lowest levels in the haunch (max 0.09 mg Pb/kg). A comparison of game species revealed that the lead concentration in haunch and saddle of lead shot red deer was higher than in the corresponding samples of lead shot roe deer. Our results have shown that by the use of non-lead ammunition, a significant reduction of the lead concentration especially in edible parts near the wound channel is possible.

Lead contamination is a widely recognised conservation problem for raptors worldwide. There are a number of studies in individual raptor species but those data have not been systematically evaluated to understand raptor-wide lead exposure and effects at a pan-European scale. To critically assess the extent of this problem, we performed a systematic review compiling all published data on lead in raptors (1983–2019) and, through a meta-analysis, determined if there was evidence for differences in exposure across feeding traits, geographical regions, between hunting and non-hunting periods, and changes over time. We also reviewed the impact of lead on raptors and the likely main source of exposure. We examined 114 studies that were unevenly distributed in terms of time of publication and the countries in which studies were performed. Peer-reviewed articles reported data for 39 raptor species but very few species were widely monitored across Europe. Obligate (vultures) and facultative scavengers (golden eagle, common buzzard and white-tailed sea eagle) accumulated the highest lead concentrations in tissues and generally were the species most at risk of lead poisoning. We found no evidence of a spatial or decadal trend in lead residues, but we demonstrated that high lead blood levels relate to hunting season. Exposure at levels associated with both subclinical and lethal effects is common and lead from rifle bullets and shot is often the likely source of exposure. Overall, our review illustrates the high incidence and ubiquity of lead contamination in raptors in Europe. However, we did not find studies that related exposure to quantitative impacts on European raptor populations nor detailed studies on the impact of mitigation measures. Such information is urgently needed and requires a more harmonised approach to quantifying lead contamination and effects in raptors across Europe.

Denmark was the first European country to completely ban lead shot for hunting and target shooting. This paper reviews the process behind this phase-out to document its history, successes, and pitfalls, and to make the Danish experiences accessible for the benefit of other countries, authorities, and stakeholders who face nature management challenges implementing similar change. A review of the content of magazines published by the three hunters’ organizations during the 1978–1992 transition period was carried out, to assess the general discourse and identify the primary concerns and attitudes during the phase-out of lead shot for hunting in Denmark. Hunters were initially negative towards the change. Resistance was driven by concern about the quality, safety issues, and expensive cost of non-toxic alternatives, compounded by lack of organizational leadership and tensions between stakeholders. As a result of the widening appreciation of the environmental effects of dispersed lead shot and the introduction of new generations of alternative shot types, hunter attitudes became positive and constructive. Change need not pose an obstruction to continued hunting opportunity. On the contrary, it is believed that the value from the enhancement of the public image of hunters resulting from the reduction in the environmental dispersal of a recognized contaminant is of paramount importance for the long-term political sustainability of hunting.

The toxicity of lead has been known for a long time, and no safe uptake level can be derived for humans. Consumers' intake via food should therefore be kept as low as possible. Game meat can contain elevated levels of lead due to the use of lead ammunition for hunting. A risk assessment conducted in 2010 by the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment including various consumption scenarios revealed a possible health risk for extreme consumers of game meat hunted with lead ammunition (i.e. hunters and members of hunters' households). Babies, infants, children and women of childbearing age were identified as vulnerable group with regards to the developmental neurotoxicity of lead. It was noted, that a sound data base was required in order to refine the assessment. Therefore, the research project "Safety of game meat obtained through hunting" (LEMISI) has been conducted in Germany, with the aims of determining the concentrations of lead (as well as of copper and zinc) brought into the edible parts of game meat (roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa)) due to using either lead or non-lead hunting ammunition, whilst concurrently taking geogenic (i.e. "background") levels of lead into account. Compared to non-lead ammunition, lead ammunition significantly increased lead concentrations in the game meat. The use of both lead and non-lead ammunition deposited copper and zinc in the edible parts of game meat, and the concentrations were in the range of those detected regularly in meat of farm animals. For the average consumer of game meat in Germany the additional uptake of lead only makes a minor contribution to the average alimentary lead exposure. However, for consumers from hunters' households the resulting uptake of lead-due to lead ammunition-can be several times higher than the average alimentary lead exposure. Non-lead bullets in combination with suitable game meat hygienic measures are therefore recommended in order to ensure "state of the art consumer health protection".

The aim of this study was to examine the contamination of game meat with copper and zinc and establish whether the use of alternative (non-lead) ammunition can lead to higher or unsafe levels of copper and zinc in the meat of roe deer, wild boar and red deer. The research project "Safety of game meat obtained through hunting" (LEMISI) was conducted in Germany with the purpose of examining the entry of lead as well as copper and zinc into the meat of hunted game when using either lead or non-lead ammunition. The outcome of this study shows that the usage of both lead-based ammunition and alternative non-lead ammunition results in the entry of copper and zinc into the edible parts of the game. Using non-lead ammunition does not entail dangerously elevated levels of copper and zinc, so replacing lead ammunition with alternative ammunition does not introduce a further health problem with regard to these metals. The levels of copper and zinc in game meat found in this study are in the range found in previous studies of game. The content of copper and zinc in game meat is also comparable to those regularly detected in meat and its products from livestock (pig, cattle, sheep) for which the mean human consumption rate is much higher. From the viewpoint of consumer health protection, the use of non-lead ammunition does not pose an additional hazard through copper and zinc contamination. A health risk due to the presence of copper and zinc in game meat at typical levels of consumer exposure is unlikely for both types of ammunition.

Background Non-lead hunting ammunition is an alternative to bullets that contain lead. The use of lead ammunition can result in severe contamination of game meat, thus posing a health risk to consumers. With any kind of ammunition for hunting, the terminal effectiveness of bullets is an animal welfare issue. Doubts about the effectiveness of non-lead bullets for a humane kill of game animals in hunting have been discussed. The length of the escape distance after the shot has been used previously as an indicator for bullet performance. Objective The object of this study was to determine how the bullet material (lead or non-lead) influences the observed escape distances. Methods 1,234 records of the shooting of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and 825 records of the shooting of wild boar (Sus scrofa) were evaluated. As the bullet material cannot be regarded as the sole cause of variability of escape distances, interactions of other potential influencing variables like shot placement, shooting distance, were analyzed using conditional regression trees and two-part hurdle models. Results The length of the escape distance is not influenced by the use of lead or non-lead ammunition with either roe deer or wild boar. With roe deer, the length of the escape distance is influenced significantly by the shot placement and the type of hunting. Increasing shooting distances increased the length of the escape distance. With wild boar, shot placement and the age of the animals were found to be a significant influencing factor on the length of the escape distance. Conclusions The length of the escape distance can be used as an indicator for adequate bullet effectiveness for humane killings of game animals in hunting.Non-lead bullets already exist which have an equally reliable killing effect as lead bullets.

Olympic shooters discharge, annually, thousands of tons of lead shot which pose toxic risks to animals and may pollute both surface and ground waters. Non-toxic steel shot is an acceptable and effective substitute, but International Shooting Sports Federation (ISSF) rules prevent its adoption. The present policy and rules of the ISSF on lead shot use contravene the International Olympic Committee (IOC) Charter position on environmental protection. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), a formal Olympic partner on environmental protection, has no stated policy on contamination from lead ammunition, despite having declared lead a Priority Area for remedial action, and is pressing to remove lead from the global human environment. The IOC Sport and Environment Commission and UNEP could examine the continued use of lead shot ammunition and advise the IOC Executive Board on appropriate changes in policy and rules that could halt the massive lead shot contamination of shooting range environments world-wide.

Lead is one of the most studied toxicants, and overwhelming scientific evidence demonstrates that lead is toxic to several physiological systems in vertebrates, including the nervous, renal, cardiovascular, reproductive, immune, and hematologic systems (Health Risks from Lead-Based Ammunition in the Environment—A Consensus Statement of Scientists 2013). Furthermore, there is no level of lead exposure in children known to be without adverse effects [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 2012a, 2012b]. In light of this evidence, there is an urgent need to end a major source of lead for animals and humans: spent lead bullets and shotgun pellets. Notably, production of lead-based ammunition in the United States accounted for > 69,000 metric tons consumed in 2012; this is second only to the amount of lead used to manufacture storage batteries (U.S. Geological Survey 2013). However, there are few regulations regarding the release of lead into the environment through discharge of lead-based ammunition. For other major categories of lead consumption, such as lead batteries and sheet lead/lead pipes, environmental discharge and disposal are regulated. Therefore, lead-based ammunition is likely the greatest largely unregulated source of lead that is knowingly discharged into the environment in the United States. In contrast, the release or distribution of other major sources of environmental lead contamination (e.g., leaded gasoline, lead-based paint, lead solder) have been substantially regulated and reduced since the mid-1970s (Health Risks from Lead-Based Ammunition in the Environment—A Consensus Statement of Scientists 2013). There is a national discussion—polarized at times—of the health risks posed to humans and wildlife from the discharge of lead-based ammunition. To inform this discussion, a group of 30 nationally and internationally recognized scientists with expertise regarding lead and environmental health recently collaborated to create an evidence-based consensus statement (Health Risks from Lead-Based Ammunition in the Environment—A Consensus Statement of Scientists 2013) supporting the reduction and eventual elimination of lead released to the environment through the discharge of lead-based ammunition. The discharge of lead bullets and shotgun pellets into the environment poses significant health risks to humans and wildlife. The best available scientific evidence demonstrates that the discharge of lead-based ammunition substantially increases environmental lead levels, especially in areas with higher shooting activity (U.S. Environmetal Protection Agency 2012) and that the discharge of lead-based ammunition poses risks of elevated lead exposure to gun users (National Research Council 2012). When lead-containing bullets are used to shoot wildlife, they can fragment into hundreds of small pieces, many of which are small enough to be easily ingested by scavenging animals or to be retained in meat prepared for human consumption (Hunt et al. 2009; Knott et al. 2010; Pauli and Burkirk 2007). Consequently, lead-based ammunition may be a significant source of lead exposure in humans that regularly ingest wild game (Hanning et al. 2003; Johansen et al. 2006; Levesque et al. 2003; Tsuji et al. 2008). In addition, lead pellets and fragments have been reported in gastrointestinal tracts of hunters who consume meat from animals shot with lead-based ammunition (Carey 1977; Reddy 1985). The use of lead pellets in shotgun shells for hunting waterfowl posed a serious threat to wetland birds, and secondarily to bald eagles, in the United States, leading to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s 1991 nationwide regulations requiring use of nontoxic shotgun pellets for hunting waterfowl (Anderson 1992). However, lead poisoning from ingestion of spent lead-based ammunition fragments continues to pose a particularly serious health threat for scavenging species. These lead-containing fragments remain the principal source of lead exposure to endangered California condors and continue to prevent the successful recovery of these birds in the wild (Church et al. 2006; Finkelstein et al. 2012; Green et al. 2008; Parish et al. 2009; Rideout et al. 2012; Woods et al. 2007). Other wildlife species, such as golden eagles, bald eagles, ravens, turkey vultures, and pumas, are also exposed to the fragments of spent lead ammunition (Burco et al. 2012; Clark and Scheuhammer 2003; Craighead and Bedrosian 2008; Cruz-Martinez et al. 2012; Fisher et al. 2006; Kelly and Johnson 2011; Stauber et al. 2010; Wayland and Bollinger 1999). No rational deliberation about the use of lead-based ammunition can ignore the overwhelming evidence for the toxic effects of lead, or that the discharge of lead bullets and shot into the environment poses significant risks of lead exposure to humans and wildlife. Given the availability of non-lead ammunition for shooting and hunting (Thomas 2013), the use of lead-based ammunition that introduces lead into the environment can be reduced and eventually eliminated. This seems to be a reasonable and equitable action to protect the health of humans and wildlife.

Predatory and scavenging birds may be exposed to high levels of lead when they ingest shot or bullet fragments embedded in the tissues of animals injured or killed with lead ammunition. Lead poisoning was a contributing factor in the decline of the endangered California condor population in the 1980s, and remains one of the primary factors threatening species recovery. In response to this threat, a ban on the use of lead ammunition for most hunting activities in the range of the condor in California was implemented in 2008. Monitoring of lead exposure in predatory and scavenging birds is essential for assessing the effectiveness of the lead ammunition ban in reducing lead exposure in these species. In this study, we assessed the effectiveness of the regulation in decreasing blood lead concentration in two avian sentinels, golden eagles and turkey vultures, within the condor range in California. We compared blood lead concentration in golden eagles and turkey vultures prior to the lead ammunition ban and one year following implementation of the ban. Lead exposure in both golden eagles and turkey vultures declined significantly post-ban. Our findings provide evidence that hunter compliance with lead ammunition regulations was sufficient to reduce lead exposure in predatory and scavenging birds at our study sites. © 2011 Kelly et al.