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Background: Highly caffeinated energy drinks (EDs) are popular with adolescents and young adults, but longitudinal consumption patterns are poorly understood especially in relation to other substance use., Methods: ED and other substance use were assessed annually (modal ages 21-25) among a sample (n=1099) who were originally recruited as first-year college students (modal age 18). Trajectory groups were derived based on probability of past-year use during ages 21-24, and compared for possible differences in substance use outcomes at age 25, holding constant demographics, sensation-seeking, other caffeine consumption, and age 21 substance use., Results: From age 21-25, ED consumption declined in both annual prevalence [62.5% wt to 49.1% wt ( wt =weighted)] and frequency of use among consumers (35.2-26.3 days/year). Yet individuals exhibiting a Persistent trajectory (51.4%) of consumption outnumbered those with Non-Use (20.6%), Intermediate (17.4%), or Desisting (10.6%) trajectories. Age 25 cocaine use, nonmedical use of prescription stimulants (NPS), and alcohol use disorder (AUD) risk were significantly associated with trajectory group membership, with Persistent and Intermediate groups exhibiting the highest risk for such outcomes, even accounting for prior substance use and other risk factors. Neither marijuana nor tobacco use were associated with group membership., Conclusions: The typical pattern of ED consumption among this sample was sustained use throughout young adulthood. Such individuals appear to be at high risk for adverse substance use outcomes, and results suggest possible specificity regarding cocaine use and NPS, and AUD risk. More research is needed to understand the mechanisms underlying the connection between ED and substance use., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: Previous research has suggested important contextual factors that can differentiate problem and nonproblem drinkers., Objectives: To evaluate the strength of the prospective association between social contexts of drinking and subsequent alcohol use disorder and drunk driving 2-3 years later., Methods: The sample consisted of 652 individuals who were originally recruited at college entry, had complete data on at least one social context subscale, met the minimum criteria for Year 1 drinking, and had nonmissing data on at least one of the outcome variables in Years 3 and/or 4. Social contexts of drinking were assessed in Year 1 by using previously validated scales measuring six different situational and motivational contexts in which alcohol is consumed. DSM-IV criteria for alcohol abuse and dependence and drunk driving were assessed annually., Results: Holding constant gender, race/ethnicity, and baseline drinking frequency, the frequency of drinking in a context of social facilitation, sex-seeking, or in a motor vehicle during Year 1 was significantly related to a greater likelihood of alcohol abuse, alcohol dependence, and drunk driving in Years 3 and/or 4. Drinking in a context of emotional pain was related to alcohol dependence and drunk driving but not to alcohol abuse., Conclusions: The Social Context of Drinking Scales have utility for identifying students who are at risk for developing alcohol-related problems., Scientific Significance: Identifying college students who might develop alcohol dependence requires an assessment of both situational and motivational factors that influence drinking, especially drinking in a motor vehicle.

Background: Energy drinks are highly caffeinated beverages that are increasingly consumed by young adults. Prior research has established associations between energy drink use and heavier drinking and alcohol-related problems among college students. This study investigated the extent to which energy drink use might pose additional risk for alcohol dependence over and above that from known risk factors., Methods: Data were collected via personal interview from 1,097 fourth-year college students sampled from 1 large public university as part of an ongoing longitudinal study. Alcohol dependence was assessed according to DSM-IV criteria., Results: After adjustment for the sampling design, 51.3%(wt) of students were classified as "low-frequency" energy drink users (1 to 51 days in the past year) and 10.1%(wt) as "high-frequency" users (≥52 days). Typical caffeine consumption varied widely depending on the brand consumed. Compared to the low-frequency group, high-frequency users drank alcohol more frequently (141.6 vs. 103.1 days) and in higher quantities (6.15 vs. 4.64 drinks/typical drinking day). High-frequency users were at significantly greater risk for alcohol dependence relative to both nonusers (AOR = 2.40, 95% CI = 1.27 to 4.56, p = 0.007) and low-frequency users (AOR = 1.86, 95% CI = 1.10, 3.14, p = 0.020), even after holding constant demographics, typical alcohol consumption, fraternity/sorority involvement, depressive symptoms, parental history of alcohol/drug problems, and childhood conduct problems. Low-frequency energy drink users did not differ from nonusers on their risk for alcohol dependence., Conclusions: Weekly or daily energy drink consumption is strongly associated with alcohol dependence. Further research is warranted to understand the possible mechanisms underlying this association. College students who frequently consume energy drinks represent an important target population for alcohol prevention., (Copyright © 2010 by the Research Society on Alcoholism.)

Background: Heavy drinking and illicit drug use among college students has been a longstanding public health concern. Current methods to screen and identify college students at-risk for the development of substance use disorders (SUD) are somewhat limited., Objectives: This study aimed to cross-validate the work by Kirisci et al. ( [1] ), who developed the Transmissible Liability Index (TLI), by deriving a set of items that would be potentially useful for characterizing SUD risk across multiple dimensions among college students. We examined: 1) variations in the TLI-College Version (TLI-CV) by race, sex, SES, religiosity, and family history of substance use problems; 2) the association between the TLI-CV and alcohol and/or marijuana dependence, both cross-sectionally and prospectively, by race and sex; and, 3) the sensitivity and specificity of the TLI-CV for identifying cases of marijuana and/or alcohol dependence., Methods: Data from an ongoing longitudinal study of college students (n = 1,253) was used to conduct item response theory (IRT) analyses; the resulting TLI-CV consisted of 33 items., Results: The TLI-CV was significantly associated with baseline dependence and significantly higher for non-dependent individuals who later became dependent during the subsequent three years of college. These associations were observed for both sexes, Whites, Blacks/African-Americans, Asians, and other racial minorities. The sensitivity and specificity were suboptimal., Conclusions and Scientific Significance: The TLI-CV advances prior research to identify college students at risk for SUD. This approach holds potential promise to identify and ultimately modify the trajectories of college students who may be at risk for the development of SUD.

Objective: To examine how social contexts of drinking are related to alcohol use disorders, other alcohol-related problems, and depression among college students., Methods: Logistic regression models controlling for drinking frequency measured the association between social context and problems, among 728 current drinkers., Results: Drinking for social facilitation was associated with drinking and driving and housing violations. Drinking in the context of motor vehicles was associated with alcohol abuse/ dependence. Drinking in a context of emotional pain was associated with clinical depression., Conclusions: Alcohol-free programming that fulfills needs for conviviality and addresses early signs of depression might reduce alcohol problems among college students.

Underage drinking and drug use among college students are major public health concerns, yet few studies have examined these behaviors and their associated risk factors and consequences prospectively. This paper describes the sampling and recruitment methods of a longitudinal study of 1253 college students at a large, mid-Atlantic university. Incoming first-year students were screened during the unique window between high school and college in order to oversample drug users for longitudinal follow-up. Intensive recruitment strategies yielded a 95% cumulative response rate in annual interviews and semiannual surveys. The authors report preliminary results on exposure opportunity, lifetime prevalence, initiation, continuation, and cessation of substance use for alcohol, tobacco, and 10 illicit and prescription drugs during the first 2 years of college. Findings suggest that although some substance use represents a continuation of patterns initiated in high school, exposure opportunity and initiation of substance use frequently occur in college. Implications for prevention and early intervention are discussed.

Sales of energy drinks have increased rapidly since their introduction to the marketplace in the 1990s. Despite the health concerns raised about these beverages, which are often highly caffeinated, surprisingly little data are available to estimate the prevalence of their use. This review presents the results of secondary data analyses of a nationally representative data set of schoolchildren in the United States and reviews the available research on the association between energy drink use and risk-taking behaviors. Approximately one-third of the students surveyed were recent users of energy drinks, with substantial variation by age, sex, and race/ethnicity. Among the health and safety concerns related to energy drinks and their consumption is the possible potentiation of risk-taking behaviors. The review of available research reveals that, although there does appear to be a strong and consistent positive association between the use of energy drinks and risk-taking behavior, all but one of the available studies used cross-sectional designs, thereby limiting the ability to make inferences about the temporal nature of the association. Thus, more research is needed to understand the nature of this association and how energy drinks, particularly those containing caffeine, might impact adolescent health and safety, especially given the high prevalence of their use among youth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Early conduct problems have been linked to early marijuana use in adolescence. The present study examines this association in a sample of 1,076 college students that was divided into three groups: (1) early marijuana users (began marijuana use prior to age 15; N = 126), (2) late marijuana users (began marijuana use at or after age 15; N = 607), and (3) nonusers (never used marijuana; N = 343). A conduct problem inventory used in previous studies was adapted for use in the present study. Early conduct problems were associated with early marijuana use but not with late marijuana use, holding constant other risk factors. Results suggest that early conduct problems are a risk factor for early marijuana use even among academically achieving college-bound students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Driving under the influence of alcohol is a leading cause of injury and premature death among young adults, and college-educated individuals are at particularly high risk. Less is known about driving under the influence of other drugs, which is on the rise.Method: This study describes prospective seven-year trends in alcohol and other drug (AOD)-involved driving among a young-adult sample beginning with their second year of college (i.e., Years 2-8), and documents the extent of continuity in such behaviors across time. Originally recruited as incoming first-year students at one large public university, participants (n=1194) were interviewed annually about how frequently they drove while drunk/intoxicated (DWI), after drinking any alcohol (DAD), and/or while under the influence of other drugs (DD). Follow-up rates were high (>75% annually).Results: Among participants with access to drive a car, annual prevalence peaked in Year 4 (modal age 21) for both DWI (24.3%wt) and DD (19.1%wt) and declined significantly thereafter through Year 8 (both ps<0.05). DAD was far more prevalent than DWI or DD, increasing from 40.5%wt in Year 2 to 66.9%wt in Year 5, and plateauing thereafter. Among marijuana-using participants, likelihood of DD was consistently greater than the likelihood of DWI among Heavy Episodic and Light-to-Moderate drinkers, and it declined significantly during Years 5-8 (p<0.05).Conclusion: Post-college declines in heavy drinking and DWI prevalence were encouraging but did not necessarily translate to reductions in likelihood of engaging in DWI, depending on drinking pattern. College-educated individuals represent an important target for AOD-involved driving prevention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Few longitudinal studies have examined the relationship between illicit drug use and academic outcomes among college students. This study characterized drug use patterns of a cohort of young adults who were originally enrolled as first-time, first-year college students in a longitudinal study. It evaluated the association between these drug use patterns and continuous enrollment during college, holding constant demographic characteristics, high school grade point average, fraternity/sorority involvement, personality/temperament characteristics, nicotine dependence, and alcohol use disorder. Method: Participants (n = 1,133; 47% male) were purposively selected from one university and interviewed annually for 4 years, beginning with their first year of college, regardless of continued college attendance. Enrollment data were culled from administrative records. Group-based trajectory analyses characterized 4-year longitudinal drug use patterns. Two grouping variables were derived based on (a) marijuana use frequency and (b) number of illicit drugs used other than marijuana. Seventy-one percent of the sample was continuously enrolled in the home institution during the first 4 years of study. Results: Multivariable logistic regression models demonstrated that infrequent, increasing, and chronic/heavy marijuana use patterns were significantly associated with discontinuous enrollment (adjusted odds ratio = 1.66, 1.74, and 1.99, respectively), compared with minimal use, holding constant covariates. In separate models, drug use other than marijuana also was significantly associated with discontinuous enrollment. Conclusions: Marijuana use and other illicit drug use are both associated with a decreased likelihood of continuous enrollment in college, independent of several other possible risk factors. These findings highlight the need for early intervention with illicit drug users to mitigate possible negative academic consequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The prevalence of substance use disorders (SUD) and aspects of the help-seeking process among a high-risk sample of 946 students at one large public university were assessed in personal interviews during the first 3 years of college. After statistically adjusting for purposive sampling, an estimated 46.8%wt of all third-year students met Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition criteria for SUD involving alcohol and/or marijuana at least once. Of 548 SUD cases, 3.6% perceived a need for help with substance use problems; 16.4% were encouraged by someone else to seek help. Help-seeking was rare among SUD cases (8.8%) but significantly elevated among individuals who perceived a need (90.0%) or experienced social pressures from parents (32.5%), friends (34.2%), or another person (58.3%). Resources accessed for help included educational programs (37.8%), health professionals (27.0%), and 12-step programs (18.9%). College students have high rates of substance use problems but rarely recognize a need for treatment or seek help. Results highlight the opportunity for early intervention with college students with SUD. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]