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Introduction: We investigated whether greater concentrations of on- and off-sale alcohol outlets were associated with crime and whether this association was moderated by COVID-19 shelter-in-place orders (SIP) that restricted on-premises consumption of alcohol., Methods: Crimes (2019-2020) and addresses of licenced alcohol outlets in a medium-sized California city were geocoded within census block groups (N = 61). On- and off-sale alcohol outlet density was calculated as licenced outlets/2.59 km 2 (1 square mile). Multilevel negative binomial regression analyses were conducted to examine associations between alcohol outlet density and crime, and possible moderating effects of SIP, controlling for block group demographic characteristics and density of other retail businesses., Results: On-sale outlet density was positively associated with total crimes and Part 2 crimes, while off-sale outlet density was inversely associated with total crime and Part 2 crimes. Overall, SIP was not significantly associated with crime, but moderated the associations of on-sale density with total crime and Part 1 crimes such that reductions in crime during SIP were observed in higher density areas. The association of off-sale outlets with crime was not moderated by SIP policies., Discussion and Conclusion: On-sale outlet density, but not off-sale density, appears to be associated with increased crime. The results further indicate that restrictions in hours and service imposed by SIP policies reduced crime in high on-sale outlet density areas. These findings reinforce the importance of regulating alcohol outlet density and hours of service, especially for on-sale outlets, as a crime reduction strategy., (© 2024 The Authors. Drug and Alcohol Review published by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd on behalf of Australasian Professional Society on Alcohol and other Drugs.)

We report the results of a quasi-experimental evaluation of a mystery shopper intervention in Zacatecas and Guadalupe, Mexico. Underage youth attempted to purchase beer at 50 Modelorama stores and 32 Oxxo stores (intervention groups), and at 19 comparison convenience stores in March, July, and August 2018. After each attempt, intervention store operators were informed if a sale was made. Modelorama operators also received training and were warned that repeated sales to minors could jeopardize their franchise. Average sales rates to minors were 63.8% at Modeloramas, 86.5% at Oxxo stores, and 98.2% at comparison stores. The findings suggest that mystery shopper interventions with training, feedback to store operators, and sanctions after repeated sales to underage youth may reduce sales to minors in low- and middle-income countries.

Alcohol remains readily available to youth in most countries. We examined the associations between both the on- and off-premises commercial availability of alcohol to youth and their alcohol use, heavy episodic drinking, and alcohol-related harms. We conducted the study using data from a survey of a sample of 594 students in central Mexico between 12 and 17 years of age in 2016. Both the perceived availability of alcohol and the purchasing of alcohol at an off-premises establishment were positively related to past-30-day alcohol use and heavy episodic drinking, as well as to alcohol-related harms in the past year. Consumption at on-premises establishments was also positively associated with alcohol-related harms. Preventive efforts to reduce the availability of alcohol at off- and on-premises establishments, by such strategies as mystery shopper and responsible beverage service programs, are imperative.

Objective: This article provides a systematic review of cross-sectional research examining associations between exposure to alcohol marketing and alcohol use behaviors among adolescents and young adults., Method: Literature searches of eight electronic databases were carried out in February 2017. Searches were not limited by date, language, country, or peer-review status. After abstract and full-text screening for eligibility and study quality, 38 studies that examined the relationship between alcohol marketing and alcohol use behaviors were selected for inclusion., Results: Across alcohol use outcomes, various types of marketing exposure, and different media sources, our findings suggest that cross-sectional evidence indicating a positive relationship between alcohol marketing exposure and alcohol use behaviors among adolescents and young adults was greater than negative or null evidence. In other words, cross-sectional evidence supported that alcohol marketing exposure was associated with young peoples' alcohol use behaviors. In general, relationships for alcohol promotion (e.g., alcohol-sponsored events) and owning alcohol-related merchandise exposures were more consistently positive than for other advertising exposures. These positive associations were observed across the past four decades, in countries across continents, and with small and large samples., Conclusions: Despite issues of measurement and construct clarity within this body of literature, this review suggests that exposure to alcohol industry marketing may be important for understanding and reducing young peoples' alcohol use behavior. Future policies aimed at regulating alcohol marketing to a greater extent may have important short- and long-term public health implications for reducing underage or problematic alcohol use among youth., Competing Interests: Joel W. Grube has been supported within the past 3 years by funding from the alcohol industry to evaluate industry-sponsored programs to reduce alcohol sales to minors and other alcohol-related harms. No other conflicts of interest exist for the other authors.

Introduction and Aims: Clerks and servers at alcohol establishments often fail to verify age. Using mystery shoppers to provide performance feedback is one approach to improving age verification. Few controlled studies have evaluated mystery shop interventions. This paper reports on a cluster randomised cross-over trial of a mystery shop intervention in 16 communities in four US states., Design and Methods: The intervention comprised monthly mystery shops after which clerks and servers received immediate feedback to reinforce age verification. Managers received monthly reports. Communities in each state were matched into pairs and, following a 3-month baseline, were randomly assigned within each pair to receive the intervention beginning after the fourth (Early Intervention) or the tenth (Delayed Intervention) mystery shop. On average, 17 (range = 14-20) randomly selected on-premises and 18 (range = 11-23) off-premises outlets participated in each community (N = 557)., Results: Fixed effects multi-level logistic regressions indicated that the intervention led to a two-fold increase in the odds of age verification, odds ratio (OR) = 2.05; P < 0.001; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.76, 2.39. Overall, ID-checking increased from an average of 80% pre-intervention to 94-96% by the end of the program. Significant effects were found for on-premises, OR = 1.79; P < 0.001; 95% CI 1.43, 2.24, and off-premises establishments, OR = 2.29; P < 0.001; 95% CI 1.86, 2.82., Discussion and Conclusions: Mystery shop interventions can increase age verification for alcohol purchases and may be an effective supplement to compliance checks and responsible beverage service programs., (© 2018 Australasian Professional Society on Alcohol and other Drugs.)

This study explores which youth are more likely to have parties at home, what factors are associated with the presence of alcohol at parties, and who supplies the alcohol. We collected data in 2011 and 2012 through telephone interviews with 1,121 teens living in 50 mid-sized California cities. Overall, about a quarter of teens reported having had a party at their house in the past 12 months, of whom 39 % reported that there was alcohol at their last party. Multiple sources supplied alcohol for most parties. Seventy-two percent of those having a party stated that at least one of their parents knew about their last party, and 64 % reported that a parent was home at least part of the time. Seventy percent of youth who hosted a party with alcohol said that their parent(s) definitely knew that there was alcohol at the party, 24 % replied that their parent(s) probably knew, and only 5 % said that their parent(s) did not know that there was alcohol at the party. Logistic regression analyses indicated that youth with parents who host parties at home are themselves more likely to host parties at home. Having alcohol at a party was positively related to the age of the teen and the number of guests attending, and was negatively related to parents' awareness of the party. However, we found no relationship between whether a parent was at home at the time of the party and whether it included alcohol. These findings suggest that teens who have parties with alcohol at home have parents who know that there is alcohol at the party, even though only a small number of parents provided alcohol for the party.

Aims: To examine relationships between characteristics of the local alcohol environment and adolescent alcohol use and beliefs in 50 California cities., Design: The study used longitudinal survey data collected from adolescents; city-level measures of local alcohol policy comprehensiveness, policy enforcement, adult drinking and bar density; and multi-level modeling with three levels (city, individual, time), allowing for random effects. Models included interaction terms (time × alcohol environment characteristics) and main effects, controlling for city and youth demographic characteristics. Analyses also examined possible mediating effects of alcohol-related beliefs., Setting: Fifty California cities (50000-500000 population)., Participants: Random samples of 1478 adolescents and 8553 adults., Measurements: Past-year alcohol use and heavy drinking, and alcohol-related beliefs (e.g. perceived alcohol availability) among adolescents; past 28-day alcohol use among adults; ratings of local alcohol control policies; funding for enforcement activities; bars per roadway mile., Findings: Local alcohol policy comprehensiveness and enforcement were associated with lower levels of past-year alcohol use (betas=-0.003 and -0.085, P<0.05). Bar density was associated with a higher level of past-year alcohol use (beta=1.086, P<0.01). A greater increase in past-year alcohol use and heavy drinking over time was observed among adolescents living in cities with higher levels of adult drinking (betas=0.224 and 0.108, P<0.01). Effects of bar density appeared to be mediated through perceived alcohol availability and perceived approval of alcohol use., Conclusions: Adolescent alcohol use and heavy drinking are related to characteristics of the local alcohol environment, including alcohol control policies, enforcement, adult drinking and bar density. Change in adolescents' drinking appears to be influenced by community-level adult drinking. Bar density effects appear to be mediated through perceived alcohol availability and approval of alcohol use., (© 2013 Society for the Study of Addiction.)

Underage drinking continues to be an important public health problem and a challenge to the substance abuse prevention field. Community-based interventions designed to more rigorously control underage access to alcohol through retailer education and greater enforcement of underage drinking laws have been advocated as potentially effective strategies to help address this problem, but studies designed to evaluate such interventions are sparse. To address this issue we conducted a randomized trial involving 36 communities to test the combined effectiveness of five interrelated intervention components designed to reduce underage access to alcohol. The intervention was found to be effective in reducing the likelihood that retail clerks would sell alcohol to underage-looking buyers, but did not reduce underage drinking or the perceived availability of alcohol among high school students. Post hoc analyses, however, revealed significant associations between the level of underage drinking law enforcement in the intervention communities and reductions in both 30-day use of alcohol and binge drinking. The findings highlight the difficulty in reducing youth drinking even when efforts to curtail retail access are successful. Study findings also suggest that high intensity implementation of underage drinking law enforcement can reduce underage drinking. Any such effects of enhanced enforcement on underage drinking appear to be more directly attributable to an increase in perceived likelihood of enforcement and the resultant perceived inconveniences and/or sanctions to potential drinkers, than to a reduction in access to alcohol per se.

Background: Underage drinking is associated with a number of social and public health consequences. Preventing access to alcohol is one approach to reducing underage drinking., Objectives: This study assesses the efficacy of a culturally tailored "reward and reminder" program aimed at reducing convenience store alcohol sales to youth living on or near nine American Indian reservations., Methods: First, tribal council proclamations were sought to support underage drinking prevention, including reward and reminder efforts. Then, decoys (volunteers over 21 years of age but judged to look younger) attempted to purchase alcohol without identification. Clerks who asked for identification were given "rewards" (gift cards and congratulatory letters), whereas clerks who did not were given "reminders" of the law regarding sales to minors. Following an initial baseline of 12 purchase attempts, three repeated reward and reminder visits were made to 13 convenience stores selling alcohol within 10 miles of the reservations (n = 51 total attempts)., Results: Five of nine tribal councils passed resolutions in support of the program. The baseline sales rate without requesting ID was 33%. Similarly, 38% of stores in the first reward and reminder visit round failed to request identification. However, in the following two reward and reminder rounds, 0% of the stores failed to request identification., Conclusions: These results indicate that environmental community-level underage drinking prevention strategies to reduce alcohol sales near rural reservations are feasible and can be effective., Scientific Significance: Environmental prevention strategies within reservation communities support integrated supply and demand reduction models for reducing underage drinking.

Objective: This study investigated relationships between local alcohol policies, enforcement, alcohol outlet density, adult alcohol use, and underage drinking in 50 California cities., Method: Eight local alcohol policies (e.g., conditional use permit, social host ordinance, window/billboard advertising) were rated for each city based on their comprehensiveness. Local alcohol enforcement was based on grants received from the California Alcoholic Beverage Control agency for enforcement of underage drinking laws. Outlet density was based on the number of on- and off-premise outlets per roadway mile. Level of adult alcohol use was ascertained from a survey of 8,553 adults and underage drinking (frequency of past-year alcohol use and heavy drinking) from surveys of 1,312 adolescents in 2009 and 2010. Multilevel regression analyses were conducted to examine the effects of policies, enforcement, and other community-level variables on adolescent drinking, controlling for youth demographic characteristics. Mediating effects of adolescents' perceived ease of obtaining alcohol, perceived enforcement, and perceived acceptability of alcohol use also were examined., Results: None of the eight local alcohol-policy ratings were associated with adolescent drinking. Funding for underage drinking enforcement activities was inversely related to frequency of past-year alcohol use, whereas outlet density and adult drinking were positively related to both past-year alcohol use and heavy drinking. These relationships were attenuated when controlling for perceived ease of obtaining alcohol, enforcement, and acceptability of alcohol use, providing evidence formediation., Conclusions: Adolescent alcohol use and heavy drinking appear to be influenced by enforcement of underage drinking laws, alcohol outlet density, and adult alcohol use. These community-level influences may be at least partially mediated through adolescents' perceptions of alcohol availability, acceptability of alcohol use, and perceived likelihood of getting in trouble with local police.

In this study, we explored how and where parents store alcohol in the home, and how they monitor this stored alcohol. In-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with parents of youths, aged 15-18 years, in northern California. We found that parents typically stored alcohol in unsecured locations easily accessible to adolescents. Parental monitoring of alcohol included counting or marking bottles and hiding alcohol. However, parents reported that they relied primarily on their memory and intuition to monitor alcohol and admitted that they would not notice if small amounts of alcohol disappeared.

Aim: This study examined how community alcohol outlet density may be associated with drinking among youths., Methods: Longitudinal data were collected from 1091 adolescents (aged 14-16 at baseline) recruited from 50 zip codes in California with varying levels of alcohol outlet density and median household income. Hierarchical linear models were used to examine the associations between zip code alcohol outlet density and frequency rates of general alcohol use and excessive drinking, taking into account zip code median household income and individual-level variables (age, gender, race/ethnicity, personal income, mobility and perceived drinking by parents and peers)., Findings: When all other factors were controlled, higher initial levels of drinking and excessive drinking were observed among youths residing in zip codes with higher alcohol outlet densities. Growth in drinking and excessive drinking was, on average, more rapid in zip codes with lower alcohol outlet densities. The relation of zip code alcohol outlet density with drinking appeared to be mitigated by having friends with access to a car., Conclusion: Alcohol outlet density may play a significant role in initiation of underage drinking during early teenage, especially when youths have limited mobility. Youth who reside in areas with low alcohol outlet density may overcome geographic constraints through social networks that increase their mobility and the ability to seek alcohol and drinking opportunities beyond the local community.

Reducing youth access to commercial sources of alcohol is recognized as a necessary component of a comprehensive strategy to reduce underage drinking and alcohol-related problems. However, research on policy-relevant factors that may influence the commercial availability of alcohol to youth is limited. The present study examines characteristics of off-premise alcohol outlets that may affect alcohol sales to youth. Random alcohol purchase surveys (N = 385) were conducted in 45 Oregon communities in 2005. Underage-looking decoys who were 21 years old but did not carry IDs were able to purchase alcohol at 34% of the outlets approached. Purchase rates were highest at convenience (38%) and grocery (36%) stores but were relatively low (14%) at other types of outlets (e.g., liquor and drug stores). Alcohol purchases were less likely at stores that were participating in the Oregon Liquor Control Commission's Responsible Vendor Program (RVP), when sales clerks asked the decoys for their IDs, and at stores with a posted underage alcohol sale warning sign. Alcohol purchases were also inversely related to the number of sales clerks present in a store, but were not related to sales clerks' age and gender. Findings of this study suggest that more frequent compliance checks by law enforcement agents should target convenience and grocery stores, and owners of off-premise outlets should require training of all sales clerks to ensure reliable checks of young-looking patron IDs, and should post underage alcohol sales warning signs in clear view of patrons.

This paper investigates the affective responses of youth toward specific elements featured in television alcohol advertisements (i.e., people character, animal character, music, story, and humor). It also examines the associations between advertising likeability and its potential influence. Respondents were 253 children and adolescents in California (47% male; aged 10-17). Data were collected using self-administered questionnaires in group settings. Respondents were shown a stimulus tape containing television advertisements for beer and soft drinks. The tape was stopped at the end of each advertisement to allow respondents to answer questions about that advertisement before viewing the next. Perceived likeability of beer advertisements is a function of the positive affective responses evoked by the specific elements featured in the advertisements. Liking of specific elements featured in beer advertisements significantly contributed to the overall likeability of these advertisements and subsequently to advertising effectiveness indicated by purchase intent of product and brand promoted by these advertisements. Advertisements that focus primarily on product qualities or send a message of legal drinking age were rated less favorably and evoked less desire to purchase the product. Implications for countering the effects of alcohol advertising on young people are discussed.

Background: Despite a minimum legal drinking age, many young people use alcohol. Environmental strategies to control youth drinking focus on restricting access and the enforcement of possession laws. This study examines the relationship between use of these strategies and the frequency of youth alcohol use and related problems., Methods: Participants were 16,694 students, ages 16-17 in 92 communities in Oregon. A multi-level analysis of a repeated cross-sectional statewide student survey was conducted. The outcome measures examined include 30-day frequency of alcohol use, binge drinking, use of alcohol at school, and drinking and driving., Results: The rate of illegal merchant sales in the communities directly related to all four alcohol-use outcomes. There was also evidence that communities with higher minor in possession law enforcement had lower rates of alcohol use and binge drinking. The use of various sources in a community expanded and contracted somewhat depending on levels of access and enforcement., Conclusions: This evidence provides empirical support for the potential utility of local efforts to maintain or increase alcohol access control and possession enforcement.

Background: Much attention has recently been directed toward developing preventive interventions to reduce drinking and driving through efforts to limit the numbers and locations of alcohol outlets at the community level. Although evaluations of these efforts have suggested linkages between alcohol outlets and problem outcomes, they have not addressed the linkage between outlets and drinking and driving among youth. The analysis reported here investigates the relationship between alcohol outlet densities and underage drinking and driving as self-reported on two telephone surveys conducted in California., Methods: These analyses were based on data obtained from two telephone surveys conducted by the Prevention Research Center and archival data collected by the California Department of Alcoholic Beverage Control and the US Census Bureau. The sample for the first survey consisted of 15- to 20-year-old adolescents and young adults contacted by telephone, using a random digit dialing of exchanges in the greater San Francisco Bay Area. A second set of survey data was similarly collected by a random sample of households throughout California, and the Bay Area subset was also used for this analysis., Results: At the individual level, older respondents were more likely to report drinking and driving and riding with drinking drivers, whereas females and Asians were less so. At the aggregate or city-level, alcohol outlet density, as measured by the number of on- and off-premises establishments licensed to sell alcohol, was associated with both drinking and driving and riding with drinking drivers. These effects were moderated by a number of individual level effects, with younger respondents and females more likely to be affected by outlet densities., Conclusions: The findings here provide support for the implementation of policies targeting alcohol outlet density reductions. Areas with large numbers of such outlets provide ample opportunities to youth for alcohol purchases.

This article presents the proceedings of a symposium at the 2001 Research Society on Alcoholism meeting in Montreal, Canada. The symposium was organized and chaired by Joel W. Grube. The presentations and presenters were (1) Introduction and background, by Susan E. Martin; (2) The effect of alcohol ads on youth 15-26 years old, by Leslie Snyder, Mark Hamilton, Fran Fleming-Milici, and Michael D. Slater; (3) A comparison of exposure to alcohol advertising and drinking behavior in elementary versus middle school children, by Phyllis L. Ellickson and Rebecca L. Collins; (4) USC health and advertising project: assessment study on alcohol advertisement memory and exposure, by Alan Stacy; and (5) TV beer and soft drink advertising: what young people like and what effects? by Meng-Jinn Chen and Joel W. Grube.

Counter-advertising commonly is used to balance the effects that alcohol advertising may have on alcohol consumption and alcohol-related problems. Such measures can take the form of print or broadcast advertisements (e.g., public service announcements [PSAs]) as well as product warning labels. The effectiveness of both types of counter-advertising is reviewed using the Elaboration Likelihood Model as a theoretical framework. For print and broadcast counter-advertisements, such factors as their emotional appeal and the credibility of the source, as well as audience factors, can influence their effectiveness. Further, brewer-sponsored counter-advertisements are evaluated and received differently than are the more conventional PSA counter-advertisements. For warning labels, both the content and design of the label influence their effectiveness, as do audience factors. The effectiveness of those labels is evaluated in terms of the extent to which they impact cognitive and affective processes as well as drinking behavior.

This study examined the relative contribution of alcoholic beverage types to overall alcohol consumption and associations with heavy alcohol use and alcohol-related harms among adults. Cross-sectional survey data were collected from adult samples in two cities involved in the Global Smart Drinking Goals (GSDG) initiative in each of five countries (Belgium, Brazil, China, South Africa, United States). Survey measures included past-30-day consumption of beer, wine, flavored alcoholic drinks, spirits, and homemade alcohol; past-30-day heavy drinking; 14 alcohol-related harms in the past 12 months; and demographic characteristics. Within in each country, we computed the proportion of total alcohol consumption for each beverage type. Regression analyses were conducted to estimate the relative associations between consumption of each alcoholic beverage type, heavy alcohol use, and alcohol-related harms, controlling for demographic characteristics. Beer accounted for at least half of total alcohol consumption in GSDG cities in Belgium, Brazil, the U.S., and South Africa, and 35% in China. Regression analyses indicated that greater beer consumption was associated with heavy drinking episodes and with alcohol-related harms in the cities in Belgium, Brazil, South Africa, and the U.S. Significant increases in heavy drinking and alcohol-related harms were also consistently observed for spirits consumption. Beer accounts for the greatest proportion of total alcohol consumption in most of the GSDG cities and was consistently associated with more heavy drinking episodes and alcohol-related harms. Reducing beer consumption through evidence-based interventions may therefore have the greatest impact on hazardous drinking and alcohol-related harms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is known about adults in China who drink homemade alcohol, and whether they are at elevated risk of harms relative to those who drink alcohol from commercial sources. Purpose: We describe and contrast adults in China who regularly consume either homemade or commercially available alcohol, or both. Methods: Household-based in-person interviews were conducted in 2018 with adults in Jiangshan and Lanxi. We examined the characteristics of 833 adults who had consumed alcohol within the previous 30 days, comparing those who drank commercial alcohol only with those who drank homemade alcohol only and alcohol from both sources. Results: Regression analyses revealed that drinkers of both homemade and commercial alcohol consumed more drinks and were more likely to report heavy drinking than did drinkers of commercial or homemade alcohol only and were also more likely to meet criteria for alcohol use disorder. We also found that homemade-only alcohol drinkers were at elevated risk for this disorder. Conclusions: Drinkers of both homemade and commercial alcohol in China may be at risk for alcohol-related problems and constitute a little understood population for whom further research is needed. The AB InBev Foundation supported this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: We investigated whether recreational marijuana legalization (RML) in Oregon in 2015 and recreational marijuana and alcohol retail outlet density levels in Oregon counties were associated with increased alcohol and marijuana co-use and beliefs supportive of alcohol and marijuana use among adolescents. Method: We conducted secondary analyses of biennial data collected from 11th graders who participated in the Student Wellness Survey (SWS) in 36 Oregon counties from 2010 to 2018 (N = 71,870). Multi-level logistic regression analyses assessed changes in past-30-day co-use of alcohol and marijuana, and alcohol- and marijuana-related beliefs after RML in counties with low, medium, and high densities of licensed recreational marijuana and alcohol retail outlets. We used post-RML 2016 and 2018 SWS data to examine whether beliefs accounted for any relationship of recreational marijuana and alcohol outlet density with alcohol and marijuana co-use. Results: We found a significant post-RML increase in past-30-day alcohol and marijuana co-use in 2016 in counties with the highest density of recreational marijuana and alcohol retail outlets. There were significant post-RML increases in perceived risk and parent approval of alcohol and marijuana use. Analyses with 2016 and 2018 SWS data indicated that the relationship between level of recreational marijuana and alcohol retail outlet density and past-30-day alcohol and marijuana co-use was accounted for beliefs about marijuana and alcohol availability, approval by parents, and risk. Conclusion: RML and greater retail availability of recreational marijuana and alcohol were positively associated with alcohol and marijuana co-use among adolescents, and with beliefs favorable to alcohol and marijuana use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reports an evaluation of a community-based approach to prevent underage sales of alcohol. Focus of the interventions; Implementation of the interventions in three communities in California and South Carolina; Logistic regressions analyses of the purchase survey data before and after the interventions in each experimental community; Findings.

Additive, interactive, and nonlinear models of alcohol expectancy values were compared using survey data from 1,758 high school students. Expectancies and values independently predicted drinking in the additive model. Expectancies were more important as predictors than were values, and negative expectancies were more important than positive expectancies. Significant expectancy-value interactions also were found. Drinking was highest when positive consequences were believed to be likely and desirable and was lowest when negative consequences were believed to be likely and undesirable. Significant nonlinearities indicated that beliefs about negative consequences had greater effects at lower levels of likelihood and evaluation whereas beliefs about positive consequences had greater effects at higher levels of likelihood and evaluation. However, the interactive and nonlinear effects were small. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]