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Nature-based solutions (NBS) can deliver many benefits to human wellbeing, including some crucial to climate adaptation. We quantitatively assess the global potential of NBS strategies of protection, restoration, and agroforestry by modeling global climate change mitigation and local ecosystem services (water availability, sediment retention, runoff, pollination, nitrogen retention, green water storage, and coastal protection). The strategies with the most potential to help people do not necessarily deliver the most climate change mitigation: per area of conservation action, agroforestry provides substantial benefits (>20% increase in at least one local ecosystem service) to three times more people on average than reforestation while providing less than one tenth the carbon sequestration per unit area. Each strategy delivers a different suite of ecosystem service benefits; for instance, avoided forest conversion provides a strong increase in nitrogen retention (100% increase to 72 million people if fully implemented globally) while agroforestry increases pollination services (100% increase to 3.0 billion people if fully implemented globally). One common disservice shared by all the NBS strategies modeled here is that increased woody biomass increases transpiration, reducing annual runoff and in some watersheds negatively impacting local water availability. In addition, the places with the greatest potential for climate change mitigation are not necessarily the ones with the most people. For instance, reforestation in Latin America has the greatest climate change mitigation potential, but the greatest ecosystem service benefits are in Africa. Focusing on nations with high climate mitigation potential as well as high local ecosystem service potential, such as Nigeria in the case of reforestation, India for agroforestry, and the Republic of Congo for avoided forest conversion, can help identify win-win sites for implementation. We find that concentrating implementation of these three conservation strategies in critical places, covering 5.8 million km2, could benefit 2.0 billion people with increased local ecosystem services provision. These critical places cover only 35% of the possible area of implementation but would provide 80% of the benefits that are possible globally for the selected set of ecosystem services under the NBS scenarios examined here. We conclude that targeting these critical places for protection, restoration, and agroforestry interventions will be key to achieving adaptation and human wellbeing goals while also increasing nature-based carbon mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing temperatures and shifting precipitation patterns have major consequences for smallholder farmers, especially in the Global South. Our study examined spatial patterns and climatic drivers of farmers' perceptions of climate change, and how these perceptions translated into adaptation actions. We interviewed 56 farmers in southwestern Ethiopia and analyzed ERA5-Land reanalysis climate data from 1971 to 2020. The majority of farmers perceived the recorded temperature increase as well as a decrease and shift in the timing of rainfall. Perceived climate change varied with local climate factors and not with the rate of climate change itself. Farmers' adaptation practices showed associations with local temperature, but not with farmers' perceptions of climate change. Our findings highlight that even if farmers perceive climate change, perceptions are most common in areas where climate action is already urgent, and perceptions may not translate into adaptation. Thus, targeted and timely information and extension programs are crucial. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Efforts to enhance carbon stocks and boost carbon absorption potential are essential for climate change mitigation. Peatland ecosystems, known for their high organic content, are particularly vulnerable to environmental management. The study aimed to examine the alterations in land use and land cover that occurred between 1998 and 2022, spanning a 24-year duration. Additionally, it sought to assess the associated variations in carbon stocks within the designated Kepau Jaya specific purpose forest area. The area under investigation encompasses a peatland ecosystem that has experienced substantial changes in land cover and land use. This study investigated the fluctuations in carbon stock caused by these alterations and provides valuable perspectives on the potential of agroforestry systems to promote a wider range of land uses. Additionally, it highlights their role in ecosystem restoration initiatives and the better management of forest peatland regions. METHODS: A spatial analysis was conducted on Landsat 5 and 8 satellite images by using shapefile data stored within the Google Earth Engine platform. Data analysis was carried out using Classification and Regression Tree, a decision tree algorithm used in machine learning for guided classification. Furthermore, purposive sampling was utilized to gather socioeconomic data, followed by the implementation of a benefit-cost analysis. FINDINGS: The results revealed significant changes in the land cover within the Kepau Jaya specific purpose forest area over a 24-year period, with forested areas and open areas decreasing by 23.15 hectares per year and 16.94 hectares per year respectively, and oil palm plantation areas expanding by 40.10 hectares per year. From 1998 to 2022, there has been a consistent annual decline in carbon stocks, resulting in a reduction of 1,933.11 tons of carbon per year. The changes in land use and cover are closely linked to this decline. In an effort to increase plant species diversity in the area and support the gradual transition away from monoculture, a participatory agroforestry scheme was implemented by intercropping Coffea liberica and Shorea balangeran between oil palm rows in a 2-hectare oil palm plantation block within the agroforestry demonstration plot. According to measurements taken at breast height, the aboveground biomass of these species was measured, leading to projected estimates of carbon stocks in Kepau Jaya specific purpose forest area reaching 19,455 tonnes of carbon by the year 2030, with Coffea liberica contributing 4,148 tonnes carbon and Shorea balangeran contributing 15,307 tonnes carbon. CONCLUSION: The study area experienced a substantial reduction in forest cover, whereas the extent of oil palm areas expanded significantly. The findings underscore the need for proactive measures to strengthen the governance of specific-purpose forest areas through community empowerment and the establishment of demonstration plots to promote agroforestry development. The results of this study provide insights for long-term forest rehabilitation strategies aimed at fostering sustainable forest management that yields environmental and socio-economic benefits in the long run. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The integration of trees into diverse land-use systems holds potential for India to meet nationally determined contribution (NDC) targets under the Paris Climate Agreement. With a target of sequestering 2.5–3 billion tons of CO2 equivalent by 2030, the study focused on the widespread and economically viable eucalyptus-based agroforestry, practiced widely in various planting geometries tailored to meet industrial end-use requirements. In this context, a detailed study was conducted to quantify the influence of five planting geometries [3 m × 3 m, 6 × 1.5 m, 17 × 1 × 1 m (paired row) and two boundary plantations (east–west and north–south directions) at 2 m away from tree to tree] of eucalyptus on intercrops [dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata)—barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) rotation] biomass, soil properties, and carbon stock of the system during 2009–2016. Results revealed that biomass accumulation of different tree components was 62.50%–74.09% in stem; 6.59%–9.14% in branch; 3.18%–5.73% in leaves; 12.20%–20.44% in stump roots; and 1.71%–3.48% in fine roots across the planting geometries. The mean carbon content of the stem, branch, leaves, and roots was 49.00, 47.00, 43.00, and 49.00%, respectively. Over the 8-year period, geometry of 3 × 3 m performed better in terms of total biomass production (344.60 Mg ha− 1 by tree biomass and 62.53 Mg ha−1 by intercrops). The independent parameter, DBH²H (DBH: diameter at breast height and H: tree height), was found to be a very good predictor of dry weight, followed by DBH alone. Among various functions (linear, allometric, logistic, Gompertz, Chapman, and exponential), the best-fit equation was allometric, i.e., B = 300.96 × DBH²H0.93 (adjusted R² = 0.96) for eucalyptus based on universal model adequacy and validation criteria. The carbon sequestration rate was maximum (20.79 Mg C ha−1 year−1) in 3 × 3 m followed by 17 × 1 × 1 m. The total carbon stock of eucalyptus-based system (tree + crop + soil) varied significantly under different planting geometries and sole crop rotation (dhaincha–barley). The higher carbon stock (237.27 Mg ha−1) was obtained from 3 × 3 m spacing and further partitioning carbon stock in trees—166.29 Mg ha−1, crops—25.01 Mg ha−1 and soil—45.97 Mg ha−1. The paired row spacing (17 × 1 × 1 m) yielded higher crop yield and net returns (Rs. 600,475 ha−1), underscoring wide spacing’s role in system productivity and sustainability. Tree-based systems were valuable components of agriculture, advocating for their widespread adoption to reduce CO2 emissions and generate income through carbon credits. These findings will provide crucial insights into sustainable land-use practices and advance India’s commitment toward adaptation of climate change mitigation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of Perhutani and local farmers in developing agroforestry in Bogor Forest Management Unit (FMU) is important for carbon sequestration-based climate mitigation efforts. Different compositions of the plants in seven agroforestry systems in four part of Bogor FMU. Farmers adjust the multipurpose crops planted with Perhutani main plants, which are more dominant. The potential mean annual carbon increment based on aboveground carbon stock of agroforestry is between 2.26 to 66.65 tonnes per hectare, while in 2 monocultures land system is between 13.65 to 18.29 tonnes per hectare. The carbon increment in agroforestry systems is better than monoculture because of plant diversity and different ages. Then, carbon revenue using carbon pricing set by the World Bank-FCPF Program in East Kalimantan is in the range of IDR 1,547,325 to IDR 49,292,405 per hectare, using the Social Cost scheme in the range IDR 12,997,535 to IDR 414,056,204 per hectare and using domestic carbon tax is range IDR 635.017 to IDR 20,229,441 perhectare. Regarding carbon revenues, the wider the agroforestry land managed by farmers, the higher the carbon income received. Using the benefit transfer method over a 20-year mitigation period, an estimated 2.19 times increase in carbon revenues is obtained at an inflation rate of 4%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroforestry plays a pivotal role in mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and addressing the challenges posed by climate change. While carbon sequestration efforts have primarily centred on forests, it is imperative to acknowledge the contribution that non-forest ecosystems, such as agroforestry, can offer. This study investigated the influence of agroforestry systems on the variation of biomass carbon stocks in the Sahelo-Sudanian and Sudanian regions of the Senegalese Groundnut basin. Three primary agroforestry systems were studied: silvopastoral, agrisilvicultural, and agrosilvopastoral. Forty-six (46) 100 m × 100 m plots were sampled, within which 1 × 1 m2 subplots were used to sample understory biomass across three agroforestry systems in the two climatic zones. Analysis of variance was performed to assess the influence of agroforestry systems and climatic zones on biomass carbon stocks. The findings showed that in the Sahelo-Sudanian region, the agrisilvicultural system exhibited the highest AGC + BGC stocks, averaging 43.42 ± 21.61 tCha−1. In contrast, the silvopastoral system showed significantly higher AGC + BGC stocks, which amounted to 36.33 ± 12.27 tCha−1 in the Sudanian region. On the other hand, understory carbon stocks were significantly higher (p < 0.01) in the agrisilvicultural and agrosilvopastoral systems than in the silvopastoral system in both climatic zones. Agroforestry systems had a significant effect on AGC + BGC stocks within climatic zones. Nevertheless, the effect was less pronounced when comparing across climatic regions. These results underscore the importance of specific land management practices interacting with local climatic conditions to influence AGC + BGC stocks. Therefore, policy makers should carefully consider the interaction of these factors when implementing carbon management practices and planning mitigation strategies in West Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest landscape restoration through agroforestry has been implemented as a Nature-based Solution to deforestation in the Global South with varied outcomes. The Modified Taungya System (MTS) is one of such programmes introduced in Ghana to address socio-economically-induced degradation of forest reserves. For two decades since its establishment, there has not been any examination of a synthesised findings on the MTS and their implication for the prospects of the programme. Using the PRISMA method to select empirical studies, this article examines the state of reforestation under the MTS by reflecting on the conditions of success and failures of the programme. In doing so, two interrelated arguments are advanced. First, the MTS seems to be successful when farmers are well-educated about the programme and their future benefits in the reserves that they enrich. Second, the MTS has largely failed to achieve its full potentials for forest recovery due to bribery, corruption and nepotism that have bedevilled land demarcation to, and delays in signing benefit sharing agreement with, farmers. There is a need for a thorough sensitisation on the MTS to enhance its transparency. Besides, the MTS needs to be remodified if it would be one of the strategies to contribute to the Bonn Challenge and for a durable climate mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Regenerative agriculture commonly aims to increase soil carbon sequestration, with potential benefits for human and ecosystem health, climate mitigation, and biodiversity. However, the effectiveness of various regenerative practices at increasing carbon sequestration is unclear. Methods: This study identified and quantified the yearly soil carbon sequestration rate of regenerative practices in arable cropland and vineyard ecosystems through a literature review. We examined N=345 soil carbon sequestration measures across seven regenerative practices - agroforestry, cover cropping, legume cover cropping, animal integration, non-chemical fertilizer, nonchemical pest management, and no tillage. Results: Our findings indicate that all seven practices effectively increased the carbon sequestration rate. There were no statistically significant differences among the practices. Combining these practices may further enhance soil carbon sequestration. Discussion: We propose a sequence of regenerative practices that farmers can adopt, balancing ease of implementation and carbon sequestration effectiveness. To address under-studied practices, we recommend further research, including long-term monitoring studies and randomized controlled trials in perennial systems. Our recommendations aim to enhance the implementation and effectiveness of regenerative practices while mitigating the current challenge of limited sample sizes for quantifying carbon sequestration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study was conducted at three sampling sites in the province of Manabí, Ecuador, designated for coffee production under an agroforestry system (AFS). A total of 21 plant species were recorded, and the carbon stored in live aboveground biomass was estimated. The results showed that coffee-based AFS has a high potential for carbon storage, and species diversity is related to the structural parameters and diversity of each sampling site. The implementation of coffee-based AFS is an effective strategy for the conservation of native flora and climate change mitigation in the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alnus (Alnus acuminata Kunth) has been widely promoted under climate change mitigation and adaptation programs in the East African highlands. However, information is lacking on the impact of pruning management and green manure (GM) application on soil health and the productivity of associated crops. Using a large suit of soil quality indicators, crop growth and yield measurements, this study identified appropriate combinations of alnus pruning levels and GM application for sustainable intensification of potato (Solanum tuberosum) and wheat (Triticum aestivum) production in alley cropping with Alnus. This study compared six treatments, namely, (1) sole crops of potato or wheat (control), (2) sole crop + GM, (3) 75% pruning, (4) 75% pruning + GM, (5) 90% pruning and (6) 90% pruning + GM. In all treatments potato and wheat were grown in rotation. The best treatments were the 75% pruning + GM and 90% pruning + GM, which significantly differed from the control in soil pH, soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (P), exchangeable calcium (Ca) contents, the N:P and C:P stoichiometric ratios and the soil structural stability index (SSI). These treatments increased soil pH by 5–6%, SOC by 74–82%, TN by 58–68%, exchangeable Ca by 76–81%, total P by 17–21%, the N:P ratio by 40%, C:P ratio by 43–51%, SSI by 71–79%, potato tuber yields by 17–21% and wheat yields by 21–32% over the control. Therefore, it is concluded that pruning and application of alnus green manure can significantly improve soil health and crop productivity on degraded soils in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroforestry, with benefits including resource diversity, improved nutrition, climate change mitigation, and increased income, can ensure financial stability for small farmers by diversifying yields. However, its widespread adoption in traditional farming communities encounters challenges. Focusing on two districts in Tripura with resettled former shifting cultivation-dependent communities, the study used a mixed methods approach, collecting data from 221 households, assessing socio-economic status, farming practices, and agroforestry adoption. Statistical analyses revealed that most common commercial species were Arecanut, Rubber, Jackfruit, and Pineapple, and households practicing agroforestry had notably higher annual farm incomes over other systems. Over 80% households recognized agroforestry's self-sufficiency, with 50% noting improved financial security, diversity, and coping capacity. Socio-economic benefits were better understood than environmental benefits. Plot diversity variations were influenced by seed procurement source, system type, and tribe. Challenges in adopting scientific agroforestry, such as long maturation, land insufficiency and labor demands, were identified. Suggested solutions included increased seed availability, more land for agroforestry, and skill training. This study emphasizes the potential of agroforestry in offering sustainable livelihoods to traditional smallholders and promoting agroecological sustainability in the North-eastern Region of India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The land use sector is a crucial pillar in achieving the EU climate goals set for 2050. A significant part of the climate change mitigation potential of the land use sector is inherent to agroforestry. Windbreaks are important agroforestry elements of Hungarian agricultural landscapes. The new and improved agroforestry subsidy system may positively affect the extension of windbreaks in Hungary, making it relevant to assess their carbon sequestration potential. In our study, we examined the carbon sequestration of windbreaks at the country level and in two sample areas of 24,000 hectares based on National Forestry Database volume stock data, as well as information collected from the Hungarian Forest Cover Map using orthophoto interpretation. We estimated the total annual carbon sequestration realized in the aboveground biomass pool of Hungarian windbreaks to be −33.1 ktCO2/year, which is 0.67% of the total annual carbon sequestration of the aboveground biomass pool of all Hungarian forests, as reported by the Hungarian Greenhouse Gas Inventory. On the other hand, according to our estimate, the weighted mean annual carbon sequestration in the aboveground biomass of windbreaks was −2.4 tCO2/ha/year in the 2010–2020 period. This value is very close to the average mean annual carbon sequestration per hectare value of all forests, as reported by the Hungarian Greenhouse Gas Inventory. This means that planting a given area of windbreaks in between agricultural fields can have similar climate change mitigation effects as planting forests in the same given area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The escalating carbon dioxide emissions leading to global climate change are acknowledged as a paramount environmental challenge in the twenty-first century. The significance of land use systems in stabilising carbon dioxide levels and enhancing carbon sink potential has gained noteworthy attention from both the scientific and political communities. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change emphas ises that agroforestry systems present vital prospects for synergising climate change adaptation and mitigation efforts, offering substantial technical mitigation potential. Windbreaks are well-known agroforestry systems in Hungary and form an important part of agricultural landscapes. The improved agroforestry subsidy system in our country makes it relevant to model the carbon sequestration potential of windbreaks. In the framework of the ForestLab project we plan to develop a carbon sequestration model specific for Hungarian agroforestry systems. In this study, as a preparatory step of the model development, we assessed the yield class distribution of Hungarian windbreaks by tree species group and identified variables that had significant effect on yield class based on the data of the National Forestry Database. Our results show that among the examined effects the most important predictor of the yield class of windbreaks was the tree species group, followed by the thickness of the productive soil layer and the hydrology of the site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon dioxide removal strategies are becoming increasingly important as a fundamental component of comprehensive climate policies. One strategy to increase carbon (C) sinks is the integration of hedgerows into agricultural landscapes. Besides additional C storage in above-ground and below-ground hedgerow biomass, the establishment of hedgerows has the potential to increase soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks. However, empirical data regarding the magnitude of SOC accrual with hedgerow establishment are still limited. We sampled 23 sites across Germany in a paired-plot approach with the aim of estimating SOC stock change with hedgerow establishment on cropland. At 21 sites, SOC stocks were higher beneath hedgerows than in the reference cropland. On average, SOC stock accrual was 29 ± 22 Mg ha−1 (36 ± 49 %) in 0–100 cm soil depth. SOC stocks were significantly different in both topsoil and subsoil. Subsoils below 30 cm depth contributed 41 % (12 ± 17 Mg C ha−1) of the total SOC stock change, stressing the importance of subsoil SOC for the total SOC stocks of hedgerow systems. The positive effect of hedgerows on SOC stocks extended laterally beyond the hedgerow area itself. SOC stock in the grassy hedgerow edge also increased significantly by 22 ± 22 Mg C ha−1 (28 ± 30 %) and SOC stock in the cropland directly adjacent to the hedgerow were 9 ± 19 Mg C ha−1 (12 ± 25 %) higher than in the reference cropland. Particularly high C stock differences between hedgerows and reference cropland soils were found in old hedgerows (>200 years) planted on hedgebanks, which are typically found in northern Germany. Our study confirmed that SOC stocks increase with hedgerow establishment on cropland throughout the whole soil profile. If hedgerows were to be established on 3 % of Germany’s cropland area, SOC stocks would increase by 13 Tg C equivalent 48 Mio. t CO2, highlighting that hedgerows are a promising and multi-functional climate change mitigation option.

Timber production and carbon sequestration in trees in agroforestry systems (AFS) are key to productivity and climate change mitigation. There are no studies about dynamics of growth and carbon sequestration of Cordia alliodora during all plantation cycle. The objective of this study was to develop models for diametric growth and carbon sequestration in aboveground biomass of C. alliodora in AFS with coffee in Líbano, Tolima, Colombia. Nonlinear models of growth and carbon sequestration in aboveground biomass of C. alliodora in AFS with coffee were developed. A total of 90 trees, ranging in age from 1 to 19 years, were randomly selected in farms and measured (diameter at breast height -dbh- and total height -h) in AFS with a basal area of C. alliodora between 0.22 and 17.8 m2/ha. Timber volume and aboveground biomass were estimated with allometric models, while carbon was estimated by multiplying aboveground biomass by 0.47. The best-fit models were selected according to the coefficient of determination (R2), Akaike's information criterion (AIC), predicted residual error sum of squares (PRESS), biological logic and a residual analysis. The highest growth rate of this species was reached at 4–6 years for dbh and h (3.6 cm/year and 2.9 m/year, respectively) and at 20 years for timber and carbon (0.60 m3/tree/year and 88.9 kg C/tree/year, respectively). In 20 years, a C. alliodora tree would store 1.1 Mg C and a AFS with 60 trees/ha would sequester between 260 Mg CO2/ha in aboveground biomass. The results show that C. alliodora trees could be maintained in the field for more than 20 years, thus increasing the volume per individual and carbon sequestration for a longer time. This demonstrates the importance of this species mainly when timber production and carbon sequestration are priorities for its profitability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroforestry systems (AFSs) have gained recognition as a land use strategy to address food security and climate change. They involve intentionally cultivating trees alongside crops and/or animals. AFSs cover approximately 5% of the global forest area and promote sustainable soil conservation, including soil organic carbon (C) sequestration (CSEQ). In some areas of Chile, AFSs are used to preserve the ecological value of native forests. This study evaluates the effects of two AFSs, namely, an agroforest for fodder production (AGROFRST) and Silvopastoral (SPS), within a degraded native forest (Nothofagus obliqua sp.). The evaluation focuses on their impact on CSEQ capacity and soil quality (SQ), using soil quality indexes (SQIs) derived from 30 soil quality indicators (SINDs) related to physical, chemical, and microbiological properties at two depths (0–5 and 5–20 cm). The results for the total depth analyzed (0–20 cm) indicate an average CSEQ of 6.88 and 4.83 Mg C yr−1 and a global SQI of 37.8% and 31.0% for AGROFRST and SPS, respectively. Among the thirteen SINDs that demonstrated significant differences (p < 0.05), five were associated with the considered depths (P+, Ca2+, S, ECEC, and AlSAT), three differed between AGROFRST and SPS (BD, NH4+, NO3−), while SOC, K+, and Mg2+ varied across all conditions (e.g., combinations of systems and depths), and β-GLU and NMIN differed in a single condition. However, almost all 30 SINDs analyzed showed higher values at the 0–5 cm depth, indicating the positive effects of soil organic matter (SOM)/SOC additions. Significant interactions (Pearson's correlation) revealed that SOC correlated with most SINDs (e.g., N, NH4+, P+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, S, ECEC, NMIN). These findings suggest that both AGROFRST and SPS systems have similar capabilities in restoring the ecological value of native Nothofagus forests while providing conditions for productive and complementary use. This sustainable option offers opportunities for cattle production alongside ecological restoration efforts and provides a possible strategy to generate public policies related to the ecosystem services of agroforestry systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ongoing climate crisis merits an urgent need to devise management approaches and new technologies to reduce atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations (GHG) in the near term. However, each year that GHG concentrations continue to rise, pressure mounts to develop and deploy atmospheric CO2 removal pathways as a complement to, and not replacement for, emissions reductions. Soil carbon sequestration (SCS) practices in working lands provide a low‐tech and cost‐effective means for removing CO2 from the atmosphere while also delivering co‐benefits to people and ecosystems. Our model estimates suggest that, assuming additive effects, the technical potential of combined SCS practices can provide 30%–70% of the carbon removal required by the Paris Climate Agreement if applied to 25%–50% of the available global land area, respectively. Atmospheric CO2 drawdown via SCS has the potential to last decades to centuries, although more research is needed to determine the long‐term viability at scale and the durability of the carbon stored. Regardless of these research needs, we argue that SCS can at least serve as a bridging technology, reducing atmospheric CO2 in the short term while energy and transportation systems adapt to a low‐C economy. Soil C sequestration in working lands holds promise as a climate change mitigation tool, but the current rate of implementation remains too slow to make significant progress toward global emissions goals by 2050. Outreach and education, methodology development for C offset registries, improved access to materials and supplies, and improved research networks are needed to accelerate the rate of SCS practice implementation. Herein, we present an argument for the immediate adoption of SCS practices in working lands and recommendations for improved implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Cocoa is one of the main crops grown in Ecuador. The agricultural area dedicated to cocoa represents the largest area dedicated to a permanent crop the country. Dry bean production has grown at an average annual rate of 15% since 2014, mainly due to yield improvements and replacement of other crops. Several varieties of cocoa are grown, but production is dominated by two main varieties: "Cacao Fino y de Aroma" and clonal varieties (dominated by CCN-51). Cocoa, mainly in monocrop systems, is mainly produced on the Ecuadorian Coast (but also in the Highlands and Amazonia). This study presents a statistics-based LCA of the Ecuadorian cocoa value chain. Material and methods: LCIs representing the various types of systems in each link of the value chain—i.e. the various types of farming systems, processing and distribution—were constructed in terms of representative production units. Sub-chains centred on different cocoa varieties and value-adding strategies were identified. Primary and secondary data were collected for the most representative system types, as defined in the actor typologies. Primary data were obtained via field visits and surveys, while secondary data were obtained mainly from statistical datasets of the National Institute of Statistics and Census. Impacts were computed following the European Commission's Product Environmental Footprint, while soil carbon turnover was modelled using RothC. Results and discussion: Identified types of producers are subsistence and entrepreneurial small, medium, and large. Two post-harvest strategies were modelled: a volume-oriented one and a quality-oriented one. The main sub-chains identified are the volume/commodity-oriented one (which is dominantly based on cocoa which either does not undergo post-harvest, or which undergoes volume-oriented post-harvest activities) and the quality-oriented one. Across producer types, irrigation and negative direct field emissions are the most important factors, followed in importance by total energy consumption. Post-harvest and processing activities are dominated by energy expenditures. Sub-chains feature significantly different intensity of impacts, with the volume-oriented sub-chain (i.e. those privileging quantity over quality) featuring lower impacts than the quality-oriented ones. Conclusions: The impacts of the value chain are comparatively lower, at least regarding climate change, than in other producing countries. Its agricultural phase generally exhibits low input pressure, contributes to climate change mitigation through high C sequestration in biomass that exceeds C losses due to land use change (e.g. deforestation), and does not seem to pose an immediate threat to biodiversity. Improvement initiatives do not necessarily imply intensification of production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil supports numerous ecosystem services and contributes to climate change mitigation. Several publications have appeared in recent years considering soil as a persistent carbon sink and reported that agroforestry systems have a potential for soil organic carbon storage. However, there is still little knowledge about the soil organic carbon storage in olive orchards and its role in climate change mitigation. Therefore, soil samples collected from topsoil (0–30 cm) and subsoil (30–60 cm) in 57 different olive orchards provide an excellent opportunity to investigate the role of several factors (tree ages, planting density, farming system type and soil depth) in driving soil organic carbon storage variability in agroforestry olive orchards compared to olive trees in monoculture system across the Saiss region (Morocco). The difference was significant between the two types of plantation systems studied (agroforestry and monoculture) and between the two soil layers studied (topsoil and subsoil). Agroforestry olive orchard systems stored approximately 1.2 times the organic carbon in the soil compared to monoculture systems. In addition, topsoil stores 1.5 times compared to subsoil. The correlation results showed a positive relationship between the organic carbon stock of the topsoil and the subsoil, indicating that an increase in the topsoil is accompanied by an increase in the organic carbon stock of the subsoil. These results can provide a better understanding of the effect of agroforestry on deep soil organic carbon stock in Moroccan olive orchards. Furthermore, it can provide a valuable reference for future research on the soil organic carbon storage variability in Morocco and from an international perspective.

Farmers are adopting different agroforestry practices, but comparative studies between the practices based on ecosystem functions are often ignored. We assessed species composition and carbon stock in two different agroforestry practices (traditional and improved) adopted in the mid-hills of Nepal. We found higher species richness and dominancy of Citrus synenssis (fruit species) in the improved practice, whereas we found higher species evenness, diversity, and dominance of Ficus clavata (fodder species) in the traditional practice. 0.35 of the similarity index between the two practices indicated that there was 65% difference in species number between the two practices. The improved practice had larger trees with higher frequency compared to traditional practice. The carbon inventory reflected that the total carbon stock between the two practices was insignificant, whereas the total biomass carbon was significantly higher in the improved practice than in the traditional practice. Therefore, improvement in traditional practices has the potential to increase biomass and sequester more carbon within the same unit of land. However, maintaining species diversity is a concern in the improved practice. We suggest policymakers and concerned stakeholders for prioritizing improved agroforestry practice and maintain species diversity while designing strategies for agroforestry promotion and climate change mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although agroforestry systems (AFS) provide numerous ecosystem services and are a recognized strategy for climate change mitigation and adaptation, knowledge on the woody component is lacking. Single tree data could improve planning, management and optimization of AFS. One tree species which is of great interest due to its valuable timber and non-timber products is walnut (Juglans regia L.). We used terrestrial laser scanning data to fit quantitative structure models (QSMs) for 65 walnut trees in AFS with diameter at breast height (DBH) ranging from 1 to 77 cm. Based on the QSMs, volumetric information as well as height and crown parameters were derived. By combining the volumetric data with bark and wood density followed by carbon and nutrient concentration, whole tree biomass, nutrient and carbon content were derived. To enable the application of our results, we modeled allometric relationships based on the DBH. The maximum crown projection area of a tree was more than 340 m2, the maximum leafless above-ground dry biomass was 7.4 t and the maximum amount of stored carbon was 3.6 t (in metric tons). A modelled AFS comprising 15 trees per hectare with a target DBH of 60 cm projects at the end of its 60-year rotation period an above-ground tree volume of more than 100 m3, about 60 t of dry biomass and roughly 30 t of sequestered carbon. By producing allometric functions, we provide much needed information for small-scale modelling of AFS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroforestry is seen as a land management technique that can address many of the issues faced by smallholder farmers, such as climate change adaptation and climate change mitigation. Agroforestry helps farmers adapt to extreme weather events, create resilient microclimates for crops and livestock across regions, and help combat climate change. An important role of agroforestry in tackling climate change may be to reduce CO2 emissions by actively sequestering carbon from the atmosphere. Soil stores the largest carbon stock (77%–92%) in agroforestry systems, with trees, herbaceous plants, and deciduous trees absorbing 7%–22% and 1%, respectively. Smallholder farmers in developing countries not only build resilient agroecological systems that actively absorb carbon, but also revert to more natural production systems that provide better ecological and social functions. By doing so, we can prevent climate change. Agroforestry not only reduces greenhouse gas emissions and improves the resilience of agricultural landscapes, but also can contributes to climate change mitigation and adaptation by promoting species migration to more favorable conditions and carbon sequestration. Climate projections could see production declines in much of sub-Saharan Africa, exacerbating food insecurity among citizens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing demand for biomass for biofuel production is facing challenges due to shortage of feedstock. Growing a variety of different short rotation tree species as well as oil seeds on marginal lands, as an inter crop, may contribute to energy security, climate change mitigation, apart from creating new employment opportunities in a sustainable way. Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. (Mahaneem) is one of the promising fast-growing and multipurpose trees of dry areas and used in various plantation programmes due to its ability to grow well with less rainfall. Therefore, in this study, Ailanthus excelsa based agroforestry systems (growing of trees and food crops simultaneously on the same piece of land) with different plant geometry, i.e. 10 × 20, 10 × 10, 10 × 6.5 and 10 × 5 m (50, 100, 150 and 200 trees ha−1) were assessed for food and biomass production. Among all the plant geometries, the plant geometry of 10 × 20 m exhibited higher yield components and yield viz. number of effective tillers and siliquae per plant (306.7 m−2 and 268.42), number of grains per spike and per siliqua (44.83 and 12.5), test weight (40.21 and 5.89 g), grain and seed yield (3.93 and 1.90 t ha−1), straw and stover yield (5.0 and 2.70 t ha−1); and root weight (2.11 and 0.76 t ha−1) and total biomass (11.04 and 5.36 t ha−1) of wheat and Indian mustard, respectively. Biomass of 28.6 t ha−1 from trees and 5.9 t ha−1 from wheat (only straw and underground) under 5 × 4 m tree geometry can be potential feedstock for biofuel production on sustainable basis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to measure possible seasonal methane (CH4) fluxes in tropical agroforestry soils to enhance the case for agroforestry's inclusion in the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) program. The role of CH4 in the REDD+ program is currently uncertain. Air samples and environmental variables from the soil-atmosphere interface of the Maya Mountain Research Farm in southern Belize were collected three times per week throughout April and July of 2019. Samples were analyzed using the static chamber and gas chromatography method. The average CH4 flux for the dry season was − 0.02 mg CH4 m−2 h−1 and − 0.03 mg CH4 m−2 h−1 for the wet season, with negative values indicative of uptake. There was a negative correlation between CH4 flux and rainfall in the dry season and a positive correlation in the wet season, indicating that CH4 uptake occurred during the dry season. However, our results show that there is not a significant pattern of CH4 uptake (at a 95% confidence limit). Given the large discrepancy in the literature regarding CH4 uptake from agroforestry soils, further investigation of CH4 fluxes from agroforestry soils is warranted. Understanding CH4 fluxes in tropical agroforestry soils are of paramount importance for agroforestry utilization as a tool for climate change mitigation through the REDD+ program. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we estimated the magnitude of soil-to-atmosphere carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) fluxes in deciduous tree and willow coppice based agroforestry systems in hemiboreal Latvia. We studied systems combining hybrid alder, hybrid aspen, silver birch, black alder, and willow clones with perennial reed canary grass (RCG), which were established in the spring of 2011 in former cropland with mineral soil. Three different soil fertilisation practices were initially applied (control without fertilisation, fertilisation with wood ash, and sewage sludge). Measurements of fluxes of greenhouse gases were taken in both deciduous tree, willow coppice and RCG plots using a closed opaque manual chamber method, from June 2020 to October 2021. Soil CO2 fluxes (the sum of autotrophic and heterotrophic respiration) were increased in RCG plots compared to plots under willow and deciduous tree canopies, while the highest mean CH4 fluxes were found in willow coppice plots. No impact of dominant vegetation type on instantaneous soil N2O fluxes was found. Temperature was the key determinant of the magnitude of CO2 and N2O fluxes. The highest soil CO2 and N2O fluxes were detected during the summer and decreased in the following order: summer, autumn, spring, winter. There were no pronounced relationships between soil CH4 fluxes and temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1.In many tropical areas, forests have almost undergone complete decline. In this context, agroforestry has often been acknowledged as fostering compromises between crop production, local income diversification and the preservation of forest ecosystem services. 2.Cocoa agroforestry capacity to provide ecosystem services has mainly been studied through a management intensification gradient summed up as a shade rate. This paper proposes an alternative reading grid based on different trees origins that agroforests often combine: (i) Remnants,left-alive during deforestation, (ii) Recruits that have colonized the agroforest and (iii) Planted trees. This grid has been applied to 137 cocoa fields in the south of Ivory Coast to assess the impact of farmers management on provisioning trees ecosystem services (i.e.: carbon storage, diversity, food, medicine, timber and agronomic services to cocoa trees). 3. (i) Little environmental effect was found to explain ecosystem services provisioning. (ii) However, with regard to their origins, trees provide different services: remnants stock most above-ground carbon, recruits are the most diverse and provide medicinal resources and planted trees bring food resources. (iii) According to their origin, trees belong to different species or are at different stages of maturity so that trees from different origins play a complementary role in providing ecosystem services. Our results suggest that Ivorian cocoa agrosystems are so shaped by human management of associated trees that ecosystem services are weakly linked to environmental variables. Two neighboring fields in similar environmental conditions will provide very different services according to farmers' management. 4. Synthesis and applications Preserving remnants while clearing forest is irreplaceable for large-scale climate mitigation while providing farmers with trees seedlings may have only little impact on carbon stocks. To strengthen complementarities between human-brought and human-selected trees, private companies providing trees to farmers should supply them with different valued trees from the ones they already plant or easily find in recruits. At landscape scale, policy should encourage remnants preservation to ensure that those remnants can feed the cohort of recruits with propagules thus allowing the survival of the species throughout several cycles of perennial crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change, land degradation, and desertification lead to the loss of carbon present in the soil and plants. The carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration in the atmosphere has reached 412 ppm. This is a rise of 47% since the start of the industrial period, when the concentration was close to 280 ppm. Therefore, the sequestration of carbon from the atmosphere to earth is the need of the hour. Many scientists have suggested agroforestry as a potent instrument for climate change mitigation as well as to fetch lucrative benefits. The Indian government is also promulgating tree-based systems for increasing tree cover up to 33% of the total geographical area to mitigate climate change. Therefore, the expansion of the commercial agroforestry system of fast-growing tree species producing higher biomass could be a sustainable and ecologically benign technique to sequester carbon, increase green cover, and improve the financial status of farmers. This review highlights the commercial agroforestry systems, biomass and carbon sequestration potential, and case studies of poplar and eucalyptus. The species such as poplar (Populus deltoides), nilgiri (Eucalyptus spp.), subabul (Leucaena leucocephala), tree of heaven (Ailanthus excelsa), willow (Salix spp.), malabar neem (Melia dubia), cadamba (Neolamarckia cadamba), and white teak (Gmelina arborea) are the suitable tree species for carbon sequestration under agroforestry. Among these species, poplar and eucalyptus are major agroforestry tree species that have been adopted by millions of farmers in India since the 1990s. Indo-Gangetic plains are considered the birthplace of commercial or industrial agroforestry, as poplar and eucalyptus are widely planted. This review reports that poplar and eucalyptus have the potential to sequester carbon stock of 212.7 Mg C ha−1 and 237.2 Mg C ha−1, respectively. Further, the net carbon sequestration rate in poplar and eucalyptus was 10.3 and 12.7 Mg C ha−1 yr−1, respectively. In conclusion, the commercial agroforestry system was very successful in the Indo-Gangetic regions of the country but needs further expansion with suitable compatible crops in different parts of the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several agroforestry systems prevail in different agro-ecological zones of Pakistan, and cover a remarkable area of 19.3 million hectares. They not only play an important role in slowing down CO2 emissions, but also contribute to mitigating climate change. However, in many regions, the relevant effect of agroforestry systems on overall carbon (C) stock and their reliance on various factors are quite unidentified. This study was planned to assess the biomass accumulation and C stocks of different commonly practiced agroforestry systems (boundary, bund, scattered, agri-horticulture) and their constituent land use types (tree + cropland) through a non-destructive approach (allometric equations) in a semi-arid region of Punjab, Pakistan. The results showed that the highest plant biomass (87.12 t ha−1) increased by 46%, 17%, 78%, and 339%, and C stock (42.77 t ha−1) increased by 49.51%, 20%, 82%, and 361% in the boundary planting system compared to the bund, scattered, agri-horti and sole cropland, respectively. The soil organic carbon (SOC) stock at all three depths, 0–15 cm, 15–30 cm & 30–45 cm, was found in the following order: boundary planting system > bund planting system > agri-horti system > scattered planting system > agricultural system, with a maximum in the boundary planting system and minimum in the sole cropping system at all three depths. Overall, the total C stock of the ecosystem's vegetation + soil C (0–30 cm) in the forested area was 275 t ha−1, equating to 37 t ha−1 in the agricultural system alone. Our results highlighted that agroforestry systems have the highest potential for C sequestration. We suggest that research and investment in agroforestry systems can be a successful way for Pakistan to achieve some of its climate change mitigation goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alley cropping is a specific agroforestry system, which is regarded as sustainable land use management, that could play a crucial role in climate change adaptation and mitigation. Despite its appealing attributes, farmers' up-take of the system is slow in temperate regions. This study aims to contribute to scaling-up agroforestry through a case study in Hungary and to help to design productive alley cropping systems. We investigated which tree planting pattern of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) results in the most productive alley cropping system when intercropped with triticale (x Triticosecale W.) by statistically analysing the yields of the intercrop and of the trees in nine different layouts and by calculating land equivalent ratios (LER). There was significant difference between the treatments both in triticale and black locust yields. The more trees planted on a hectare, the higher the volume of the stand, and the less yield of triticale was observed, although the latter correlation was weak and in some cases the triticale was more productive between the trees compared with sole crop control. Eight out of nine treatments had favourable LER (0.94–1.35) when the trees were five years old. Black locust and triticale seem to be a good combination for productive alley cropping systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroforestry systems (AFSs) have gained recognition as a land use strategy to address food security and climate change. They involve intentionally cultivating trees alongside crops and/or animals. AFSs cover approximately 5% of the global forest area and promote sustainable soil conservation, including soil organic carbon (C) sequestration (CSEQ). In some areas of Chile, AFSs are used to preserve the ecological value of native forests. This study evaluates the effects of two AFSs, namely, an agroforest for fodder production (AGROFRST) and Silvopastoral (SPS), within a degraded native forest (Nothofagus obliqua sp.). The evaluation focuses on their impact on CSEQ capacity and soil quality (SQ), using soil quality indexes (SQIs) derived from 30 soil quality indicators (SINDs) related to physical, chemical, and microbiological properties at two depths (0–5 and 5–20 cm). The results for the total depth analyzed (0–20 cm) indicate an average CSEQ of 6.88 and 4.83 Mg C yr−1 and a global SQI of 37.8% and 31.0% for AGROFRST and SPS, respectively. Among the thirteen SINDs that demonstrated significant differences (p < 0.05), five were associated with the considered depths (P+, Ca2+, S, ECEC, and AlSAT), three differed between AGROFRST and SPS (BD, NH4+, NO3−), while SOC, K+, and Mg2+ varied across all conditions (e.g., combinations of systems and depths), and β-GLU and NMIN differed in a single condition. However, almost all 30 SINDs analyzed showed higher values at the 0–5 cm depth, indicating the positive effects of soil organic matter (SOM)/SOC additions. Significant interactions (Pearson’s correlation) revealed that SOC correlated with most SINDs (e.g., N, NH4+, P+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, S, ECEC, NMIN). These findings suggest that both AGROFRST and SPS systems have similar capabilities in restoring the ecological value of native Nothofagus forests while providing conditions for productive and complementary use. This sustainable option offers opportunities for cattle production alongside ecological restoration efforts and provides a possible strategy to generate public policies related to the ecosystem services of agroforestry systems.

Agroforestry is a land management strategy which interfaces between agriculture and forestry. It is a reliable means to combating climate change in different parts of the world. Although majority of smallholder farmers in Ghana are aware of the benefits associated with agroforestry practice, degradation of trees on farmlands remains a major concern. This study investigates the potential of agroforestry as a climate change mitigation strategy in the Nandom Municipal. Eight (8) agroforestry farms were selected for assessment using the non-destructive method. In each farm, the trees were identified by both scientific and local names. The diameter at breast height and height of the trees were measured. The biomass was estimated using the allometric model developed by Aabeyir et al. (2020). The carbon was estimated from the biomass using a factor of 0.47. The results indicate that carbon sequestration is high among trees species like Lannea velutina, Parkia biglobosa and Vitellaria paradoxa which often have large DBH. The study therefore recommends for nursery and integration of such tree species with smallholder crops for purposes of agroforestry.

As the loss of forests over time results in a net flux of carbon (C) into the atmosphere, the practice of agroforestry can combat this and serve as a long-term sink for CO2. Based on the inventory of 93 homegarden agroforestry systems (AFS) in three study sites and using a non-destructive method involving allometric equations, the research assessed aboveground (AG) and belowground (BG) biomass and biomass C stocks across sites and along age groups in homegarden AFS in southern and southwestern Ethiopia. Plant diversity parameters were also gathered on perennial plant species. Results indicate that the mean perennial plant species richness per homegarden agroforestry, and other diversity parameters varied strongly among sites (p < 0.05). Biomass C stocks range from 18.11 at Malo Ezo to 32.86 Mg C ha−1 at Saja Laften for AG, 3.97 to 7.10 Mg C ha−1 for BG, and 22.02 to 39.96 Mg C ha−1, for each respective sites, for the overall biomass C stocks were recorded within the homegarden agroforestry systems. In terms of age groups, the mean total biomass C stock did show numerical change from the initial, ≤10 years (22.49 Mg C ha−1) to the middle age group, >10 and ≤20 years (39.96 Mg C ha−1), but it was stagnant 20 years onward (28.49 Mg C ha−1). The homegarden agroforestry systems had the potential to store up to 80.81–112.30 Mg·ha−1 of CO2 equivalents across sites, and 82.53–104.55 Mg·ha−1 of CO2 equivalents along age groups. A positive relationship was noted between AG woody biomass C stocks and attributes such as woody species richness, and woody plant density. Considering the involvement of large numbers of homegardeners, future improvements and expansion of homegarden agroforestry to larger areas can enhance to a great extent the potential to sequester C and thereby mitigate climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Establishment of a tree canopy in Cocoa Agroforestry Systems (C-AFS) provides higher carbon stocks and other ecosystem services compared with other agricultural land uses. These systems are eligible for incentive schemes for carbon sequestration but need to be optimally designed to ensure that they meet intended future goals. In this study, we combined environmental-dependent growth models and allometric equations to forecast carbon sequestration in an innovative C-AFS trial in Côte d'Ivoire and compare the results with values estimated in other cocoa systems elsewhere. The polynomial regression and non-linear regression models provided the best fit models to predict total height and stem diameter in cocoa and associated shade tree species. Then, best species-specific allometric equations were selected and used to estimate biomass from stem diameter and/or tree height. Carbon stock in the trial ranged from 37.2 to 40.5 Mg C ha−1 at 20 years, with abrupt changes due to the management activities during the study period. Timber trees stored more than 45% of aboveground carbon stocks across all agroforestry schemes. The models developed in this study hold clear applications and will serve as major platforms to design new cocoa agroforestry systems and make well-informed management decisions to maximize carbon sequestration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Agroforestry systems (AFS) contribute to carbon (C) sequestration and reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural lands. However, previously understudied differences among AFS may underestimate their climate change mitigation potential. In this 3‐year field study, we assessed various C stocks and greenhouse gas emissions across two common AFS (hedgerows and shelterbelts) and their component land uses: perennial vegetated areas with and without trees (woodland and grassland, respectively), newly planted saplings in grassland, and adjacent annual cropland in central Alberta, Canada. Between 2018 and 2020 (~April–October), nitrous oxide emissions were 89% lower under perennial vegetation relative to the cropland (0.02 and 0.18 g N m−2 year−1, respectively). In 2020, heterotrophic respiration in the woodland was 53% lower in shelterbelts relative to hedgerows (279 and 600 g C m−2 year−1, respectively). Within the woodland, deadwood C stock was particularly important in hedgerows (35 Mg C ha−1 or 7% of ecosystem C) relative to shelterbelts (2 Mg C ha−1 or <1% of ecosystem C), and likely affected C cycling differences between the woodland types by enhancing soil labile C and microbial biomass in hedgerows. Deadwood C stock was positively correlated with annual heterotrophic respiration and total (to ~100 cm depth) soil organic C, water‐soluble organic C, and microbial biomass C. Total ecosystem C was 1.90–2.55 times greater within the woodland than all other land uses, with 176, 234, 237, and 449 Mg C ha−1 found in the cropland, grassland, planted saplings treatment, and woodland, respectively. Shelterbelt and hedgerow woodlands contained 2.09 and 3.03 times more C, respectively, than adjacent cropland. Our findings emphasize the importance of AFS for fostering C sequestration and reducing greenhouse gas emissions and, in particular, retaining hedgerows (legacy woodland) and their associated deadwood across temperate agroecosystems will help mitigate climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of trees on agricultural land is predicted to increase rapidly in order to achieve biodiversity, environmental, and climate goals. This study demonstrated the selection and evaluation approach and assessed the suitable agricultural land for agroforestry practices in hemiboreal Latvia, which was selected as the demonstration area by synthesizing knowledge of environmental sciences, remote sensing, and relevant legislation on land use and management. The total area of agricultural land suitable for agroforestry was estimated to be 14.1% of the total agricultural land in Latvia (351.5 kha). The selected agricultural land mainly comprised semihydromorphic soils; the dominant soil texture was loamy sand. Current dominant land use in the selected agricultural land consisted of heterogeneous agriculture and pastures; however, the selected agricultural parcels were outside intensive agricultural production for the most part—only 0.38% of the total selected agricultural land was accepted to receive state support and/or EU support to farmers under the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Considering the lengthy process of implementation of new agricultural-land-management practices, as well as taking into account the ambitious timeframe for reaching biodiversity, environmental, and climate goals, we recommend reducing hindrances to the introduction of agroforestry systems. The provided selection and evaluation approach is transferable to other countries and regions by adaptation of the elaborated methodologies to available country-specific spatial information and data [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

About 120 Gt C as CO2-C is exchanged annually between the land and the atmosphere as gross primary productivity and about half of it is released by plant respiration yielding net primary productivity of ~60 Gt C y-1. However, the rate and magnitude of soil C sequestration differs with factors such as soil quality, antecedent C level, climate, land-use and management. Annual CO2 emissions from fossil fuel burning during 2010-19 averaged 9.4 ± 0.5 Gt C compared to 1.6 ± 0.7 Gt C due to land use changes. This imparts greater stability to sequestered C and reduces soil CO2-efflux and improves Net Ecosystem Carbon Balance (NECB) transforming a cropping sequence from potential source to sink of carbon (Benbi et al., 2020). [Extracted from the article]

Agroforestry systems (AFS) are characterized by growing trees and crops on the same area, aiming at sustainable production and better natural resources management, whilst potentially contributing to climate change mitigation. One of the most important benefits related to the productivity of AFS is the maintenance or improvement of soil quality. In the present study, qualitative characteristics of soils were evaluated in eight traditional smallholder AFS in the Municipality of Mouzaki, central Greece. The AFS were both silvoarable and silvopastoral systems and they were located either in lowland or semi-mountainous areas. Within the research areas, the effect of the trees on soil parameters was investigated. Soil samples were collected at two depths (0–30 and 30–60 cm) and at three distances from the tree base, corresponding to half, twice, triple or quadruple the tree canopy width. Soil organic matter (OM), total N, available P, exchangeable K, electrical conductivity (ECe), cation exchange capacity, pH and bulk density were determined. The effects of altitude and land use (agroforestry practice) on the soil quality parameters were also evaluated. Soil quality characteristics varied among the eight AFS. The distance from the tree significantly affected only ECe (p = 0.042), which decreased from a mean value of 0.31 dS/m to 0.25 dS/m, as the distance from the tree increased. Silvoarable systems presented significantly higher pH, ECe, available P (p < 0.001) and total N (p = 0.012) content than silvopastoral. Increased altitude resulted in significantly higher levels of OM and total N within the top 30 cm depths (p < 0.001); mean soil OM was 1.7% and total N 0.11% in the AFS in the lowland, whereas in the semi-mountainous areas 2.4% and 0.16%, respectively. The results of the research provided evidence of soil carbon sequestration, thus indicating the potential of AFS to mitigate climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The potential of agroforestry systems (AFS) for atmospheric carbon sequestration in degraded tropical lands is of key interest for climate change and rural development policies. This study evaluated aboveground and soil (0–20 cm) carbon stocks of AFS, secondary forests (SF), conserved and logged mature forests, on 88 sites in the eastern Brazilian Amazon. Tree carbon stock was higher in young (< 10 years) and advanced (> 30 years) AFS (10.2 ± 2.0 and 47.2 ± 8.1 Mg ha−1, respectively) when compared to the same age SF (5.8 ± 2.5 and 26.5 ± 19.5 Mg ha−1). However, aboveground and total carbon stocks were statistically similar within the same age categories of AFS and SF, because shrub pool were higher in SF. Conserved mature forests had the highest carbon stocks (190.2 ± 11.0 Mg ha−1), and carbon stocks in logged mature forests (119.4 ± 5.1 Mg ha−1) were similar to the advanced stages of AFS (108.6 ± 7.5 Mg ha−1). Litter and soil organic carbon (SOC) did not differ significantly between land-use systems nor along succession. At 30 years, aboveground carbon recovery was 46% (± 16) in AFS and 35% (± 21) in SF. Vegetation structural diversity (measured by DBH and height variation) was a good predictor of aboveground carbon stocks. Our results show the potential of AFS for carbon recovery, especially in the tree pool at late stages of development. Structurally more complex AFS provide an alternative to recover degraded lands and to develop synergies between climate change mitigation, adaptation, and goods production in Amazon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional coffee cultivation in Cuba is the result of a complex interaction between different flora species creating agroforestry systems widely spread in mountainous area. The systems, product of local traditional knowledge, are mainly devoted to coffee production but, thanks to the interaction with other species, farmers provide different food products both for self-consumption and to be sold. Furthermore, the adoption of shade trees in order to reach a better quality of the coffee cultivated creates particular microclimate conditions favorable for microorganisms, fauna species and also for spontaneous flora species. According to this it is clear the relationships between traditional knowledge and biodiversity preservation which is fundamental also for improving the surrounding environment, avoiding floods or hydrogeological instability damages, concurring to climate change mitigation and carbon storage. Traditional agroforestry systems are one of the best example of coexistence and coevolution between man and nature, being an historical system adopted by local communities to satisfy their needs in total respect of the surrounding environment. Considering this, the promotion and maintenance of this kind of systems and knowledge related might constitute a valid example to actively preserve biodiversity while respecting human needs for food and livelihood security. These systems are also of particular importance considering the importance of coffee as a beverage served in many countries of the world, but often produced in intensive plantations. This paper shows the high sustainability of coffee production under the shade of trees and support a new concept of food quality contributing to preserve local cultures and environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contextualization: Anthropogenic processes, as the inadequate management of productive systems, and the increase of the agricultural border are the causes of the reduction in productivity, biodiversity and ecosystemic services. As an alternative come up agroforestry, which allows obtaining different goods and services on the ecosystems where is applied. Knowledge gap: Woody plants in coffee cultivation (Coffea arabica L.), contributes to the sustainable development and conservation of the multiple benefits in the environmental, productive, socioeconomic, biological, ethological, protective, aesthetic functions, among others, of the crops. However, coffee cultivators of the south of the department of Nariño have a lack of knowledge about the biodiversity, and so of the services and goods provided by these kinds of productive systems. Purpose: The purpose of this work was to compare four kinds of productive systems and characterize the shade canopy, calculate the diversity indices, and estimate the percentage of shade to know the production and volume resulting of woody associating on productive coffee systems in three municipalities of Nariño. Methodology: Was developed in four productive systems a random complete blocks design (3 x 4), constituted by four treatments: T1: coffee in full sun; T2: coffee and musaceae; T3: coffee, woody multipurpose plants; T4: coffee, musaceae, woody multipurpose plants. Density, diversity indices, shade percentage, production and volume of wood were measured. Results and conclusions: A total of 359 individuals were registered, distributed in 37 species. The highest density was obtained in T4 (108 trees/ha). The highest ecological weight (57.7 %) was found in T3, represented by the species Fraxinus chinenesis Roxb. In T4, high Shannon indices, low Simpson indices (1.9 and 0.2) and a higher percentage of shade (57,7 %) were observed. Coffee production ranged between 1050-3300kg year-1 ha-1. As conclusion, the agroforestry systems obtain a better economic stability and increase the being a great tool in the adaptation and mitigation of climatic change on farms that can obtain a great participation in the market of sustainable special coffee. economic and social benefits of the plantations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroforestry is recognized as one of the strategies for climate change mitigation and adaptation under the Kyoto protocol. The system has been practiced in Ethiopia for a while by smallholder farmers by incorporating crops with trees providing extensive socio-economic and environmental benefits. This unaccounted benefit of the system needs further and specific study. Thus, this study aimed to examine the resilience of three (homegardens, woodlots, and parkland) traditional agroforestry systems (TAFS) on the basis of biomass carbon accumulation and socio-economic characteristics in Silite district, Southern Ethiopia. Systematic random sampling was employed to collect social and biological data. Height and diameter at breast height (DBH) were measured to determine the biomass carbon stock and a questionnaire was performed for the socio-economic data. The mean differences across the system were analyzed using a post hoc test. Socioeconomic data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and the chi-square test. Climate change awareness was perceived almost by half of the respondents, thus the contribution of TAFS to climate change adaptation and mitigation was revealed socio-economically and ecologically. Carbon stock and socio-economic benefits gained from agroforestry systems consist in a great sink of carbon and food security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroforestry, a sustainable land use practice adopted as a strategy under Kyoto Protocol, plays a crucial role to mitigate the inevitable climate change with a promising potential of carbon sequestration in their biomass and utilization of their numerous resource. Agroforestry is crucial for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, sustaining livelihoods, and partial solutions for biodiversity conservation. Worldwide, agroforestry is practiced by more than 1.2 billion people, on around 1 billion hectares (ha) of land area, while in India, around 25.32 million hectares area comes under agroforestry. Agroforestry system is the enhancement of overall farm productivity, soil enrichment through litter fall, above and below ground carbon sequestration, maintaining environmental services. Different agroforestry systems are adapted at the global level and periodic monitoring and estimation of area under agroforestry, monitoring of tree and soil carbon stocks is still a challenging task due to the lack of uniform methodology. The review analyzes the potential of agroforestry systems for climate adaptation and mitigation as well as their implications for the livelihood of human well-being. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Preservation and promotion of agroforestry systems entails the ideology for more ecosystem services, additional biodiversity benefits and climate change mitigation. Furthermore, farmland and forest landscapes and the consequent benefits to the environment from their combination, enhance the importance of agroforestry systems towards sustainable environmental policies. Nevertheless, traditional agroforestry systems face significant adaptation problems, especially in the EU, due to continuous economic reforms and strict agri-environmental measures. In this context our main goal is to assess the current managerial framework of two agroforestry systems and more specifically the olive agroforestry practices in Northern Greece. The economic and environmental implications of four different production plans are highlighted following the Life Cycle Costing and the Life Cycle Assessment protocols. The production plans include the simultaneous cultivation of annual crops, such as vetch and barley, along with olive groves. Potential environmental impacts are depicted in CO2 equivalents, while the economic allocation of costs is divided in targeted categories (e.g., raw materials, labor, land rent, etc.). The results indicate significant deviations among the four production plans, with the combination of olive trees and barley being heavily dependent on fertilization. Furthermore, the open-spaced olive trees intercropped with a mixture of barley and commonly depicted the lowest CO2 eq. emissions, though the economic cost was significantly higher than the other agroforestry system intercropped with barley only. The authors suggest that the formulation of a decision support system for agroforestry systems should be taken into account in order to preserve current agroforestry systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global sustainability challenges associated with increasing resource demands from a growing population call for resource-efficient land-use strategies that address multiple sustainability issues. Multifunctional agroforestry-based phytoremediation (MAP) is one such strategy that can simultaneously capture carbon, decontaminate soils, and provide diverse incomes for local farmers. Chinandega, Nicaragua, is a densely populated agricultural region with heavily polluted soils. Four different MAP systems scenarios relevant to Chinandega were created and carbon sequestration potentials were calculated using CO2FIX. All scenarios showed the potential to store significantly more carbon than conventional farming practices, ranging from 2.5 to 8.0 Mg CO2eq ha−1 yr−1. Overall, carbon sequestration in crops is relatively small, but results in increased soil organic carbon (SOC), especially in perennials, and the combination of crops and trees provide higher carbon sequestration rates than monoculture. Changes in SOC are crucial for long-term carbon sequestration, here ranging between 0.4 and 0.9 Mg C ha−1 yr−1, with the most given in scenario 4, an alley cropping system with pollarded trees with prunings used as green mulch. The adoption rate of multifunctional strategies providing both commodity and non-commodity outputs, such as carbon sequestration, would likely increase if phytoremediation is included. Well-designed MAP systems could help reduce land-use conflicts, provide healthier soil, act as climate change mitigation, and have positive impacts on local health and economies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oil and Gas production in Nigeria are domiciled in the Niger Delta. Agroforestry technologies were introduced as mitigation strategies against food insecurity as land management technique due to constant litigation on accusation of emissions, increase climate change and environmental devastation. Objectives were to determine reasons for agroforestry practice by rural women and identify effects of agroforestry technologies on income in the oil and gas rich Niger Delta. A total of 270 respondents in Bayelsa, Imo and Rivers States were selected using purposive and random sampling techniques. Data were collected with questionnaires and focus group discussion. Descriptive statistics and Discriminating index were used for analysis. Results showed a mean age of 51years, 38% completed secondary school, 77% married, household size of 6 and 3-4 years' experience. A discriminating index of 2.5, food production (2.8*), Income generation (3.4*), raw materials production (3.3*), Nutrient replenishing (3.1*) and soil quality (2.9*) topped reasons for agroforestry practice. It was concluded that Agroforestry technology should be advocated through extension education to meet food needs of Niger Delta to addressing the reputations of Multinational Oil and Gas companies in Nigeria. This study recommends that Multinational Oil and Gas companies should assist primary stakeholders to establish agroforestry farms as part of its corporate social responsibility addressing food insecurity and unemployment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]