Search

Special Issue: South America., The Atacama Desert is among the driest places on Earth, yet ancient agricultural systems are present in the region. Here, we present a study of terraced agricultural soils in the high-altitude eastern margin of the Atacama Desert in northern Chile, mainly dating to the Late Intermediate Period (ca. 950–1400 AD) and Inka period (ca. 1400–1536 AD). Terraced fields were compartmentalized to distribute limited irrigation water originating mainly from springs. Natural soils used for agriculture are mostly Aridisols developed on Pleistocene alluvial fan terraces and hillslopes underlain by volcanic bedrock. One research objective is to evaluate long-term soil change from agriculture. In this hyperarid climate, agriculture is only possible with irrigation, so natural soils on the same geomorphic surface adjacent to irrigated soils provide baseline data for assessing anthropogenic soil change. Data from soil profiles and surface transects indicate intentional soil change through terracing, removal of soil rock fragments, and probable fertilization. Agricultural soils have anthropogenic horizons ranging from 16 to 54 cm thick. Most agricultural soils have higher phosphorus levels, suggesting enrichment from fertilization. Changes in soil organic carbon and nitrogen are also evident. Unintentional anthropogenic soil change resulted from CaCO3 input through irrigation with calcareous spring water. Initial studies suggest that agriculture here was sustainable in the sense of conserving soils, and maintaining and possibly improving soil productivity over centuries., This study was supported by the Comisión Nacional de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica de Chile (CONICYT-USA 2013-0012), National Science Foundation (Catalyzing International Collaborations Grant, Award OISE-1265816), National Geographic Society (Grant #9296-13), the Wenner Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, the University of New Mexico Latin American and Iberian Institute, the Spanish Ministry of Culture (Actuaciones Arqueológicas en el Exterior), the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (HAR2017-87951-R, AEI/FEDER, UE), and the School for Advanced Research (Research Team Seminar).

Early field systems, in some cases several millennia old, are tangible relicts of past large-scale processes of landscaping and land allotment in many regions across Europe. Yet our cultural landscapes, created in both the near and distant past, are disappearing fast and often irreversibly so, showing how the management and preservation of fieldscape heritage is a real and urgent issue for landscape conservation policy and practice. In this introductory chapter, we provide a conceptual framework for the study of later prehistoric land allotment in Europe, including a discussion of major methodological approaches, findings and future research priorities. We outline the main scope of this volume, followed by a series of summaries of the individual chapters and describe the cross-chapter themes and approaches. Moreover, we use this introductory chapter as an opportunity to critically evaluate the research field of prehistoric fieldscapes, its current state in European archaeology as well as its future challenges and perspectives.

International audience; AbstractMillions of vulnerable smallholder farmers around the world cultivate crops on narrow hillside terraces and suffer from inadequate flat growing areas to support their families. A significant amount of surface area on terraces is actually vertical—specifically the underutilized terrace walls (risers). Some indigenous farmers in Nepal have been observed to cultivate wall-climbing and wall-descending crops, sown at the base or top edge of the walls, respectively, but these have not been evaluated for their economic benefits and adoption potential. Participatory on-farm trials were conducted on 280 terrace farms in two districts of Nepal (Kaski, Dhading) for two cropping seasons (2015–2016). Three wall-climbing crops (yam in sacks, chayote squash, pumpkin) and four wall-descending crops (ricebean, cowpea, horsegram, blackgram) were each grown by 20 farmers per crop per site and evaluated for potential net economic returns and perceptions of all 280 participating women farmers based on five adoption criteria. Here, we show, for the first time to the best of our knowledge, that terrace walls or risers can be intensified with suitable wall-climbing and wall-descending crops. All three wall-climbing crops were productive, with potential net economic returns ranging from US $27 per plant for chayote squash, $10/plant for pumpkin, and $2/plant for yam. Similarly, all four wall-descending crops were productive, with potential net economic returns ranging from US $9–$15 per 100 m of wall edge. All the wall crops received good-to-excellent ratings (typically > 8/10) by women farmers for simplicity, compatibility, affordability, potential economic returns, and willingness to continue. In terms of long-term adoption, yam, pumpkin, ricebean, and cowpea were ranked the highest, with > 90% farmers willing to continue each practice. We discuss the potential and constraints of transferring these terrace-intensifying strategies globally.

Improving land productivity is essential to meet increasing food and forage demands in hillside and mountain communities. Tens of millions of smallholder terrace farmers in Asia, Africa, and Latin America who earn $1-$2 per day do not have access to peer-reviewed knowledge of best agronomic practices, though they have considerable traditional ecological knowledge. Terrace farmers also lack access to affordable farm tools and inputs required to increase crop yields. The objectives of this review are to highlight the agronomic challenges of terrace farming, and offer innovative, low-cost solutions to intensify terrace agriculture while improving local livelihoods. The article focuses on smallholder farmers in developing nations, with particular reference to Nepal. The challenges of terrace agriculture in these regions include lack of quality land area for intensive agriculture, erosion and loss of soil fertility, low yield, poor access to agricultural inputs and services, lack of mechanization, labour shortages, poverty, and illiteracy. Agronomic strategies that could help address these concerns include intensification of terraces using agro-ecological approaches along with introduction of light-weight, low-cost, and purchasable tools and affordable inputs that enhance productivity and reduce female drudgery. To package, deliver, and share these technologies with remote hillside communities, effective scaling up models are required. One opportunity to enable distribution of these products could be to ‘piggy-back’ onto pre-existing snackfood/cigarette/alcohol distribution networks that are prevalent even in the most remote mountainous regions of the world. Such policies, practices, and tools could be supported by formalized government policies dedicated to the well-being of terrace farmers and ecosystems, to maintain resiliency at a time of alarming climate change. We hope this review will inform governments, non-governmental organizations, and the private sector to draw attention to this neglected and vulnerable agro-ecosystem in developing countries.