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Water shortages are a worldwide problem. Virtual water and the water footprint link water resources, human beings and agricultural products, and are effective tools to alleviate water-resources stress. The production of agricultural products consumes a large amount of water, and food is the most basic consumer good for human survival, so it is very necessary to study the water footprint of residents' food consumption, which is also the weak point of current research on virtual water and the water footprint. This paper aimed to conduct a comprehensive analysis on the water footprint of food consumption in China from the perspectives of urban and rural residents, per capita water footprint, water footprint structure and food consumption structure. The results revealed that the average water footprint of residents' food consumption was 605.12 billion m3/year, basically showing an upward trend. Guangdong residents had the highest water footprint for food consumption due to the highest population and higher consumption of water-intensive foodstuffs such as grain and meat in their diet. The water footprint of Xizang residents' food consumption was the lowest followed by Ningxia and Qinghai due to having the least population. The water footprint of food consumption consumed by urban residents was on the rise while that consumed by rural residents was on the decline in China, which was consistent with the changing trend of population. On the whole, the rural population consumed more virtual water embedded in food than the urban population. From the water footprint structure point, the contribution rate of the green water footprint is the largest, reaching 69.36%. The second is the gray water footprint and then the blue water footprint, accounting for 18.71% and 11.93%, respectively. From the perspective of the food consumption structure, grain and pig, beef and mutton consumption contributed significantly to the total water footprint of residents' food consumption, contributing 37.5% and 22.56%, respectively. The study is helpful for water management and water allocation in rural and urban areas, improving agricultural technology to reduce the gray water footprint and optimizing food consumption structure, such as reducing the consumption of grain and meat.

With the rapid development of the economy and population, water scarcity and poor water quality caused by water pollution have become increasingly severe in China. Virtual water trade is a useful tool to alleviate water shortage. This paper focuses on a comprehensive study of China's international virtual water flows from agricultural products trade and completes a diachronic analysis from 2001 to 2013. The results show that China was in trade surplus in relation to the virtual water trade of agricultural products. The exported virtual water amounted to 29.94billionm(3)/yr. while 155.55billionm(3)/yr. was embedded in imported products. The trend that China exported virtual water per year was on the decline while the imported was on a rising trend. Virtual water trade of China was highly concentrated. Not all of the exported products had comparative advantages in virtual water content. Imported products were excessively concentrated on water intensive agricultural products such as soya beans, cotton, and palm oil. The exported virtual water mainly flowed to the Republic of Korea, Hong Kong of China and Japan, while the imported mainly flowed from the United States of America, Brazil and Argentina. From the ethical point of view, the trade partners were classified into four types in terms of "net import" and "water abundance": mutual benefit countries, such as Australia and Canada; unilateral benefit countries, such as Mongolia and Norway; supported countries, such as Egypt and Singapore; and double pressure countries, such as India and Pakistan. Virtual water strategy refers to water resources, agricultural products and human beings. The findings are beneficial for innovating water resources management system, adjusting trade structure, ensuring food security in China, and promoting the construction of national ecological security system., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Copyright of Revista Latinoamericana de Estudios Rurales is the property of ALASRU / CEIL-CONICET and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article aims to find out the impact of water in the process of sustainable agricultural development in Iraq, by presenting the reality of water resources in Iraq and water sources with reference to water sources globally and at the level of the Arab world, the low efficiency of the use of water resources in Iraq, which was considered one of the biggest challenges that led to the depletion of this important and vital resource, as it did not exceed in the best cases 40%, which is a small percentage if compared to neighboring countries and the Arab homeland. Moreover, the study did not indicate any trend to use virtual water as a more rational alternative to importing water between the high costs of water and its transportation, and it was also shown through the study that there are many challenges that affected water management in Iraq, including water share and water security, as well as shared water with neighboring and upstream countries. The study recommended supporting and encouraging the use of modern irrigation systems (sprinklers) to raise the efficiency of water use and link water security with food security because of their major role in raising the process of sustainable agricultural development in Iraq As well Aa activating the rule aquatic Agricultural extension because of its role in guiding and guiding farmers in rationalizing the use of water resources and urging them to adopt modern irrigation technologies.

Objective This paper aims to assess the indirect influence of virtual water flow on metropolitan-scale agricultural water stress in Sichuan province. It investigates the spatiotemporal variation in this context, elucidating how persistent growth in agricultural water use and the movement of virtual water through agricultural products across the province indirectly impacts regional water stress. Method The AquaCrop model was employed to calculate the water footprint of 16 different crops from 2000 to 2018 in all metropolitan cities within the province. The calculation of inter-province virtual water flow was based on annual balance between crop production and food demand, by considering the minimum transportation costs cross the province. These calculated results were then used to analyze the influence of virtual water flow on agricultural water stress. Result From 2000 to 2018, the average water footprint of crop production in Sichuan was estimated to be 28.4 billion cubic meters per year. The total water footprint of crop production in the province exhibited a fluctuation during the studied period, with the most notable change observed in Leshan. The province experienced a net increase in virtual water inflow, with the Western areas receiving more inflow than the Eastern regions. The continuous influx of virtual water has contributed to the alleviation of agricultural water stress in the province, reducing the number of cities experiencing increased water stress due to virtual water outflows from four in 2000 to one in 2018. Conclusion The analysis of physical and virtual water highlights the need for Sichuan province to enhance the regulation and optimization of virtual water trade as a means to mitigate agricultural water stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globally, agriculture is the primary water consumption sector. This study used water footprint (WF) as a bottom-up tool and satellite imagery as a top-down tool to estimate the internal water use (WU) in the agricultural sector in an innovative way to show the effects of water-intensive use in agriculture in an arid country. The WF of Iran has been quantified for 19 main crops and for related agricultural products exported from Iran to partner countries. Using a bottom-up approach, Iran's total yearly agriculture net water consumption is estimated to be 42.43 billion cubic meters (BCM) per year. Out of 42.43 BCM total net internal water use, only 1.61 BCM is virtual-water export related to these 19 products, and the remaining 40.82 BCM is for internal use. Our results using satellite imagery show that in case of using all possible lands for agriculture, it would require 77.4 BCM. However, not all these lands are within human reach, and the maximum available water is way lower than this amount. Using satellite imagery, the total evaporation from agricultural lands shows 55.27 BCM for 2020, which agrees with national reports during 2005–2014. This study shows that agricultural water consumption tends to use internal water resources at a maximum level for export and national use, significantly impacting renewable and non-renewable water resource availability, especially in groundwater.

A stable and complete agricultural horizontal ecological compensation (AHEC) is an essential means of reconciling agricultural ecosystem protection and regional development and is also the key to the sustainable use of agricultural water and land resources. Unlike previous methods of studying agricultural ecological compensation (AEC), this study analysed the direction and amount of net transfer of agricultural land and water use along with inter-provincial trade. In conjunction with the value of ecosystem services embedded in agricultural land and water resources, this study calculated AHEC standards and estimated payments/reimbursements from each province. We found that agricultural land and water resources continued to flow from the underdeveloped inland provinces to the developed coastal provinces in 2017. In addition, the value of agricultural ecosystem in the central and coastal areas can be further enhanced by reducing the negative value of their cropland. Even though the ecological compensation standards for virtual agricultural water use (AWU) was much lower than the ecological compensation standards for virtual agricultural land use (ALU), the integrated AHEC in 31 provinces was more reasonable than considering only virtual ALU and virtual AWU. These findings are of great theoretical and application significance for the government to establish a systematic and feasible framework for inter-provincial AHEC and serve as a reference for other countries to conduct related research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the increase in population, growing urbanization, and higher demands for processed and unprocessed foods, resources related to food production have become scarce. Water and land can be considered as the primary resources to determine the crop production potential of a country. Ideally, countries that lack water and land resources can import these in virtual form. Sri Lanka is a country rich in water resources that faced bankruptcy recently. This study analyzes and explores the potential for use of land–water resources in Sri Lanka. A comprehensive framework is generated to identify the virtual land–water trade by considering ten major imports and nine major export crops in Sri Lanka. Consequently, the top ten imports/exports and top ten import/export trade partners are identified. The analysis reveals that Sri Lanka is a heavily import-dominant country, having seven times higher imports compared to exports. The country imports wheat, which is 82% of its import crops, and the same crop is the largest export (85% of crop export). Compared to its trade partners, Sri Lanka has sufficient water resources, but availability of arable land is limited. Banana is the largest export of the country, which involves higher embedded water and less land, matching the resource availability to Sri Lanka, whereas the trade partners are expected to continue importing the crop due to their water and land stress conditions. Finalization of the long-awaited agriculture policy of the country is strongly recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents an analysis of the water footprint of five Central and Eastern European countries, i.e. Poland, Slovakia, Lithuania, Ukraine and Belarus. The first three are members of the European Union, the other two are not. These countries also differ in terms of climate. The green, blue and grey water footprints of crop production, grazing, animal water supply, industrial production and domestic water supply are analysed. The per capita water footprint is also calculated. It is the highest for the countries of the former Soviet Union, that is Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania, and half as low for Poland and Slovakia. In the case of virtual water, Poland dominates in the area of import, and Ukraine in export. The index of the net import of virtual water is unfavourable for Ukraine and Lithuania and is much more positive for Poland and Belarus. When calculated per capita, the net import of green virtual water is the highest for Belarus (340 m3/person/year) and Poland (148 m3/person/year). A positive value of this index was also recorded for Slovakia and negative for Lithuania and Ukraine (-282 m3/person/year). Taking into account the exposure of the southern Ukraine steppe to water stress, this is not a favourable situation for greater export of virtual water than its import.

Copyright of Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae is the property of Uniwerystet Kardynala Stefana Wyznskiege w Warzawie and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Agricultural trade, which involves the exchange of virtual water and land resources, can effectively regulate the allocation of resources among countries while enhancing the well-being of resource-rich and resource-poor nations. China’s animal products trade market concentration is greater, and the livestock industry consumes more water than other agricultural sectors. In order to alleviate the pressure on China’s domestic water and land resources and to ensure that Chinese residents have access to animal products, this article examines the trade situation and drivers of virtual water and land resources related to Chinese animal products trade. This study used the heat equivalent method to measure the virtual water and land flows of the import and export of beef, pork, and mutton from 1992 to 2018, which is followed by the gravity model to investigate the factors impacting China’s flow of virtual land and water related to livestock products trade. We found that the economic development and the agricultural resources of exporters, as well as China’s agricultural employment rates, have a stable beneficial impact on China’s livestock imports. The population of importing nations, China’s cultivated land area, and the livestock production index of importers and exporters have a positive impact on the export of livestock products from China. Our results remain robust following a series of additional tests.

Due to the increase in population, growing urbanization, and higher demands for processed and unprocessed foods, resources related to food production have become scarce. Water and land can be considered as the primary resources to determine the crop production potential of a country. Ideally, countries that lack water and land resources can import these in virtual form. Sri Lanka is a country rich in water resources that faced bankruptcy recently. This study analyzes and explores the potential for use of land–water resources in Sri Lanka. A comprehensive framework is generated to identify the virtual land–water trade by considering ten major imports and nine major export crops in Sri Lanka. Consequently, the top ten imports/exports and top ten import/export trade partners are identified. The analysis reveals that Sri Lanka is a heavily import-dominant country, having seven times higher imports compared to exports. The country imports wheat, which is 82% of its import crops, and the same crop is the largest export (85% of crop export). Compared to its trade partners, Sri Lanka has sufficient water resources, but availability of arable land is limited. Banana is the largest export of the country, which involves higher embedded water and less land, matching the resource availability to Sri Lanka, whereas the trade partners are expected to continue importing the crop due to their water and land stress conditions. Finalization of the long-awaited agriculture policy of the country is strongly recommended.

Due to the frequent drought periods, water consumption increase, and competition of different water-using sectors, the Hirmand catchment is in a critical water status in the Sistan region. This threat has been intensified in recent years. To cope with this problem, we must pay more attention to different types of water use such as virtual water as a water saving method. The present study calculates virtual water demand of agricultural products in the Sistan region in the cropping year of 2013-2014 using water evaluation and planning (WEAP) system. Furthermore, impacts of the implementation of the virtual water scenarios are predicted on water resources and consumption over the 2015-2030 period. Results show that tomato and alfalfa have less virtual water demand despite their high water requirements due to their high production yield. Furthermore, wheat and barley have the highest virtual water demand. Also, the results of the WEAP model reveal that in the virtual water scenario, the mean annual water demand is lower than the current account (61% for net efficiency, 17% for current efficiency). Consequently, unmet demand will be reduced about 383 million m3. Therefore, given the prevalence of drought in the region, it is appropriate to implement this scenario to protect water resources. Hence, it is highly recommended to orient planning and investment in agricultural development projects of the Sistan region with the concept of virtual water.

The virtual water content of a product (a commodity, good or service) relates to the amount of water that is used in its production. Virtual-water ‘trade’ represents the amount of water embedded in products traded. With this background, countries that export agriculture commodities also export water. The purpose of this paper is to explore trends in virtual water trade in the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) region focusing on Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Zambia, in order to understand whether water rich countries export more water into the SADC through virtual water trade in cereals. The analysis is based on data on trade volumes, crop yields, and crop water requirements. The results show that South Africa, Zambia and Malawi, are the main exporters of virtual water embedded in Maize, Soybean and Groundnuts into the SADC. The Results also show that while virtual water trade has generally been increasing over time, an inquiry into whether water rich countries relatively export more water intensive commodities such as groundnuts and soybean, yields mixed results. For example groundnuts virtual water movement is stronger from both water scarce and water rich places of the SADC implying that other underlying factors than just water endowments may determine virtual water trade flows. For countries to improve water resource allocation through trade, more advocacy and analysis may be useful.

Recently, virtual water trade has been introduced as a tool to solve the water scarcity of dry regions. The concept holds that water-rich countries and regions should produce and export water-intensive commodities to water-scarce countries and regions. In this study, the status of domestic and international virtual water trade was studied to assess water management in Iran in 2006 (which was considered as a normal year). The calculations showed that 18666 Mm3 of virtual water was traded through the exchange of agricultural products between the provinces. Fars and Tehran provinces were the largest exporter and importer of virtual water, respectively. Iran imported 9626 Mm3 and exported 2226 Mm3 of virtual water. Water footprint was 752 m3/cap/yr and water self-sufficiency was 82% in Iran. The virtual water content of the exported and imported products was 1159 L/kg and 677 L/kg, respectively. The results showed that water-scarce provinces such as Kerman, Hormozgan and Semnan were exporters of virtual water to other provinces and abroad, whereas water-rich provinces such as Guilan, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, Lorestan, Kordestan, West Azarbayjan, Kohgiloyeh and Boyr-Ahmad, and Kermanshah were the importers of virtual water. Therefore, water management can be improved by the improvement in international and inter-province virtual water trade. For this purpose, the cropping pattern and consumption pattern should be adapted to the virtual-water content of agricultural products for the long-term water conditions in Iran.

Copyright of Ingeniería del Agua is the property of Universidad Politecnica de Valencia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Extensive research has evaluated virtual water trade, the water embodied in traded commodities. However, relatively little research has examined virtual water storage or the water embodied in stored commodities. Just as in physical hydrology, both flows and stocks of virtual water resources must be considered to obtain an accurate representation of the system. Here we address the following question: How much water can be virtually stored in grain storage in the United States? To address this question, we employ a data‐intensive approach, in which a variety of government databases on agricultural production and grain storage capacities are combined with modeled estimates of grain crop water use. We determine the virtual water storage capacity (VWSC) in grain silos, map the spatial distribution of VWSC, calculate contributions from irrigation and rainwater sources, and assess changes in VWSC over time. We find that 728 km3 of water could be stored as grain in the United States, with roughly 86% coming from precipitation. National VWSC capacities were 777 km3 in 2002, 681 km3 in 2007, and 728 km3 in 2012. This represents a 6% decline in VWSC over the full 10‐year period, mostly attributable to increased water productivity. VWSC represents 62% of U.S. dam storage and accounts for 75–97% of precipitation receipts to agricultural areas, depending on the year. This work enhances our understanding of the food‐water nexus, will enable virtual water trade models to incorporate temporal dynamics, and can be used to better understand the buffering capacity of infrastructure to climate shocks. Key Points: Just as in physical hydrology, both flows and stocks of virtual water resources must be consideredApproximately 728 km3 of water can be virtually stored as grain in the United States, with roughly 86% coming from precipitationVirtual water storage capacity represents roughly 62% of normal U.S. dam storage or 75‐97% of precipitation receipts [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The virtual water content of a product (a commodity, good or service) relates to the amount of water that is used in its production. Virtual-water 'trade' represents the amount of water embedded in products traded. With this background, countries that export agriculture commodities also export water. The purpose of this paper is to explore trends in virtual water trade in the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) region focusing on Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Zambia, in order to understand whether water rich countries export more water into the SADC through virtual water trade in cereals. The analysis is based on data on trade volumes, crop yields, and crop water requirements. The results show that South Africa, Zambia and Malawi, are the main exporters of virtual water embedded in Maize, Soybean and Groundnuts into the SADC. The Results also show that while virtual water trade has generally been increasing over time, an inquiry into whether water rich countries relatively export more water intensive commodities such as groundnuts and soybean, yields mixed results. For example groundnuts virtual water movement is stronger from both water scarce and water rich places of the SADC implying that other underlying factors than just water endowments may determine virtual water trade flows. For countries to improve water resource allocation through trade, more advocacy and analysis may be useful. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the evolution of food and nutrition security in Tunisia, judges its sustainability within water scarcity conditions and free trade areas, with a specific focus on the meat sector. For such purpose, the FAO indicators and Food Balance Sheets, as well as the Global Food Security Index are all analyzed. Virtual water, owed to meat and cereals for animal feed production and trade, was estimated to expect food security sustainability. Results indicated that Tunisian food and nutrition security (FNS) has been improved over the years, but its stability remains vulnerable because of the political and economic risks and the dependence of Tunisia on imported cereals for animal feed due to water scarcity. Tunisian agricultural policy, especially in both sectors of cereals and meat, should be readjusted to guarantee food and nutrition sustainability.

This paper links land and water appropriation processes, the related virtual water flows and a normative analysis of governance and sustainability issues. The intensive tobacco production in the Lerma Valley, province of Salta, Northern Argentina, was used as a case study. A conceptual framework of 'governance for sustainability' was used to guide the analysis and integrate quantitative and qualitative methodological tools. This conceptual framework includes two phases: (a) a descriptive stage, in which social and cultural aspects are described based on a historical and place-based analysis and the help of a quantitative indicator (virtual water); and (b) a more prescriptive phase where a normative evaluation of water governance is carried out in terms of some sustainability principles. Virtual water of tobacco production, expressed in population equivalents, was estimated to represent about half of the needs of the entire city of Salta (population 535,000). The paper also shows that local water governance ignores some of the social perspectives held by relevant stakeholders. We end by discussing a number of policy alternatives that could help improve the governance and sustainability of the system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China is a country with a serious water shortage. Irrigation water accounts more than 60% of total water use. With the nation’s population forecasted to peak approximately 2030, the production of food for additional people will require more water resources, which exacerbates water shortages. North China is a typical case for studying water-food nexus because water shortage has become a primary factor in restricting food production. From the perspective of virtual water, the study calculates the changing trend of the virtual water (VW) flow related to grain transfer in China, for which three primary crops of China, including rice, wheat and maize, are considered. The results demonstrate the impact of changing the spatial patterns of grain production on water resource utilization is large, and water resources are redistributed related to grain trade. Northern China imports water-intensive products from southern China and exports water-extensive products, and the VW flow from North to South from 2004 to 2013 was approximately 42.6 billion m 3 per year, about 10.2 billion m 3 irrigation water was transferred per year which accounts for about 10% of the water consumption for crop production in the North. Although the South–North Water Diversion Project, a mega-engineering scheme constructed from the Yangtze River Basin to the Huang-Huai-Hai River Basins, alleviates water pressure on the North to a certain extent, it is insufficient for exporting to provinces, and water resources for meeting grain production in the North is problematic. Based on the results, this paper suggests that virtual water flow among provinces should be linked to water resource management. The next step in water management should focus on water demand management, rather than increasing crop trade from the North to the South, which is governed by governmental policies and economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the relationship between virtual water and domestic food-water security in Qatar. The total virtual water traded between 1998 and 2015 was 24,470 Mm3, average of 1,360 Mm3y–1. Green water and blue water account 69 and 31% of total virtual water import. On average, 70% of the total water requirement is from virtual water import and Qatar’s dependence on virtual water for agricultural products increased to 90% in 2015. The paper examines the virtual water flow from the major river basins in India, Pakistan, Australia and groundwater aquifers in Saudi Arabia and policy implications of virtual water on food security of Qatar. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study is to introduce an approach for determination of comparative advantage of Basins in the production of crops, enhancing water use efficiency and directing cropping patterns to maximize net virtual water import. A model was constructed and applied assuming five different risks in available water and three levels of irrigation efficiencies (35, 45, and 65). The findings showed that, it is possible to direct optimal cropping pattern at basin level to maximize social profit, water use efficiency and net virtual water import simultaneously. However, in order to derive a definite conclusion, more data are needed about the quantity water embedded in each crop exported from and imported to each country. Moreover, it is necessary to design a suitable export-import plan to be used as a target for directing cropping patterns toward it. The approach used in this study can be viewed as a first step in this direction.

This paper provides a systematic analysis of spatial and sectoral characteristics and changes in virtual water flows associated with China’s interregional and international trade based on the China interregional input–output tables of 2002 and 2007. The results show significant improvement in water use efficiency between 2002 and 2007. However, the general spatial patterns and sectoral components of virtual water flows have more or less remained during the period. Almost all Chinese provinces are net exporters of virtual water in international trade. In interregional trade, the dominant direction of virtual water flow is from peripheral provinces to eastern coastal provinces. The agricultural sector plays an important role in shaping this direction and has significant impacts on water uses in exporting provinces, some of which are water scarce. The results of this study clarify some confusions concerning mismatches between regional water endowments and virtual water trade within China and with other countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Beginning in 1960, the Spanish agricultural sector underwent an intensive process of development, resulting in important structural changes, not only in the sector itself, but also in the relationship of the agrarian system to natural resources. These changes were closely related to the growth of per capita income and Spain's increasing integration into international markets. In the last five decades, the volume of Spanish agricultural trade has increased strongly, with a concomitant increase in the consumption of domestic water resources, requiring the construction of water infrastructure for irrigation. This paper examines the impact on water use in Spain during a period of economic modernization and trade liberalization. More specifically, we are interested in obtaining virtual water trade flow trends and identifying the major drivers responsible for these trajectories, via a decomposition analysis. Our results point to a large increase in virtual water exports and imports, primarily driven by the scale effect, that is, by the growing integration into international markets. The composition effect and changes in water intensity entailed a moderation in water consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]