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This study proposes a logistic model of the environmental factors which may affect bacterial growth and antibiotic resistance in the swiftlet industry. The highest total mean faecal bacterial (FB) colonies counts (11.86±3.11 log10 cfu/ g) were collected from Kota Samarahan in Sarawak, Malaysia, and the lowest (6.71±1.09 log10 cfu/g) from Sibu in both rainy and dry season from March 2016 till September 2017. FB isolates were highly resistant against penicillin G (42.20±18.35%). Enterobacter and Enterococcal bacteria were resistant to streptomycin (40.00±51.64%) and vancomycin (77.50±41.58%). The model indicated that the bacteria could grow well under conditions of higher faecal acidity (pH 8.27), dry season, higher mean daily temperature (33.83°C) and faecal moisture content (41.24%) of swiftlet houses built in an urban area with significant regression (P

Decision rules allow individuals of a species to decide whether or not to return to the same site in the following year or season, based on their immediate breeding success. We checked the decision rule phenomenon and simultaneously tested the prior-experience hypothesis for the cave-dwelling Edible-nest Swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus inexpectatus; ENS) in the Baratang Cave Complex, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. We used the capture-mark-recapture method to understand the decision rule in ENS. Assuming that breeding success affects the decision, we monitored 234 individuals for two consecutive breeding seasons (2017 and 2018). We also documented habitat variables (cave morphometry and microclimate) to understand the correlates of breeding success. We captured 88% (207 birds) of adult birds from the study caves in 2017 and recaptured 66% (137 birds) of adults from the same caves in 2018, which confirmed fidelity towards the cave by the species. There was no significant correlation between the rates of breeding success in 2017 and 2018. Multiple regression models revealed an insignificant relationship between cave structure and breeding success of the species. Additionally, microclimate variables (temperature and humidity) did not influence the breeding success of the birds. Our results indicate that ENS individuals seem to chose decision rule by rejecting the prior-experience hypothesis. The existing conservation strategies associated with enhancing the ENS population in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands can benefit from our findings. We further recommend long-term studies and population monitoring to understand the breeding cave fidelity in ENS.

Edible bird nest (EBN) is a bird's nest commonly made from the saliva of a swiftlet species, one of which is from species Aerodramus fuciphagus. As the largest exporting and production country, Indonesia must comply with the nitrite content standard set by China, which is 30 ppm. The maximum limit of nitrite content in EBN exported to China currently refers to the regulation of nitrite content in processed baby food because nitrite can cause poisoning and harm human health. This project aims to study and analyze the nitrite content in EBN from Sumatra as a reference and levels of nitrite policy in Indonesia. The number of samples was calculated proportionally from the data on the swiftlet houses using OpenEpi software. A total of 18 samples cleaned EBN from swiftlet houses were obtained from various regions of Sumatra Island. Samples were washed with one rinse. Samples were tested with the spectrophotometric method at The Center for Diagnostic of Agricultural Quarantine. The results showed that from the total 18 samples cleaned EBN; there was 72.22 % sample below than the nitrite content standard (30 ppm). The average nitrite in cleaned EBN is 30.19 ppm, while the median value in cleaned EBN from Sumatra is 15.42 ppm.

Existing molecular methods of sex identification have mixed success in different classes of birds. We report a new multiplex PCR method for sex identification based on CHD1gene using the P8/P2 and the 2550F/2718R primers. The new multiplex PCR approach successfully identified sex (two bands in female, single band in male) in edible-nest swiftlet (ENS) (Aerodramus fuciphagus inexpectatus) and plume-toed swiftlet (PTS) (Collocalia affinis). The new approach required agarose gel electrophoresis to resolve multiplex PCR products. The simplicity, speed and low cost make this method an adaptable molecular tool for sex identification in ENS and PTS with a possibility in other bird species.

Edible bird's nest (EBN), for its great nutritional value, is widely used around the world, especially in China and Singapore. EBNs of different origins and types may vary in price and quality. Nowadays, birds' nests are difficult to identify morphologically, except for some whole bird's nests of which origins can be roughly identified. In this study, forty-two samples were collected from different regions for sequencing analysis and phylogenetic classification to initially determine their origins. Two stable enzyme digestion sites were found in the analysis of restriction maps of the species. Then, a quick and specific PCR-RFLP method was established to identify the EBN samples' origins. The genetic identification results indicated that the forty-two samples were from five origins. With the Af/g-486bp-F/R primer and restriction enzyme Taq I, Aerodramus fuciphagus (A. fuciphagus) was efficiently differentiated from the other species. Furthermore, the cytb-592bp-F/R primer and the BamH I enzyme were found to be useful in distinguishing Aerodramus fuciphagus (A. fuciphagus) from its subspecies (Aerodramus germani, A. germani). The PCR-RFLP method provides a potential tool for the rapid discrimination of A. fuciphagus at the species and even the subspecies levels to ensure the quality of the EBN products.

Edible bird’s nest (EBN) produced by Aerodramus fuciphagus has a high demand for nutritional and medicinal application throughout the world. The present study was to evaluate the authentication of a man-made house EBN, which are half cup and stripe-shaped by FTIR. Next, both samples were compared according to their metabolite, nutritional, and mineral composition. The results indicated that the FTIR spectra of both EBN samples were identical and similar to the reference, suggesting the authenticity of the EBN used. The metabolites that contribute to the possible medicinal properties of EBN were found by using GC-MS. The results of the proximate analysis, followed by the standard AOAC method, inferred that both EBN shapes to be rich in crude protein and carbohydrate contents. However, the proximate composition between the half cup and stripe-shaped EBN showed significant differences. Major mineral elements detected were calcium and sodium, and magnesium contents were significantly different between both EBN. Additionally, the half cup and stripe-shaped EBN had a low level of heavy metal content than the maximum regulatory limit as set by the Malaysian Food Act 1983. This study concludes that the nutritional composition varied between the samples and thus suggests that nutrient content should be considered as criteria for the grading requirement of commercialized EBN.

Mursidah, Lahjie AM, Masjaya, Rayadin Y, Ruslim Y, Judinnur MB, Andy. 2021. The dietary, productivity, and economic value of swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus) farming in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 22: 2528-2537. Edible-nest swiftlets have many health benefits. The availability of edible-nest swiftlets from caves is decreasing, while the demand for edible-nest swiftlets is getting higher. Swiftlet farming is carried out to meet this demand. The location of swiftlet farming should be close to the feeding sources. Swiftlet is flying insectivorous animals. A financial feasibility assessment is carried out to determine the feasibility of the business. This study aims to determine the composition of land cover, determine the insect order of feed sources, and analyze the production and financial feasibility of swiftlet farming. The study was carried out from June to December 2019. The composition of land cover was determined using the supervised classification method, the order of insects was known using the insect determination key, while production and financial feasibility were analyzed using the Net B/C, NPV, IRR, and PP methods. The observed location and swiftlet farming were determined purposefully. The results of this study show that the land cover was dominated by shrubs (56.58%) and secondary forest (27.3%); both types of land cover are suitable for swiftlet farming locations. The dominant insects found in shrubs and wetland shrubs are Diptera (78.25%), in rice fields are Diptera (86.7%) and in oil palm plantations are Diptera (29.4%) and Hymenoptera (27.78%). Edible-nest swiftlets harvest begins in the third year, with a production period of between 17-34 years. From the financial feasibility, it can be concluded that swiftlet farming is feasible.

Swiftlet’s edible nest, the white nest which produced by Aerodramus fuciphagus species has been consumed for centuries and is well-known as one of the nutritious and medicinal delicacy in curing many illnesses. Among the benefits of consuming the bird nest, the benefit towards the human gut health has not yet been well explored. A part of the major factor shaping the composition and physiology of gut microbiota is the availability of glycans, most of which cannot be digested by enzymes encoded in the human genome. Gut microbiota can digest the indigestible glycans and further produce short-chain fatty acids, which serve as nutrients for colonocytes and other gut epithelial cells. The improvement of growth of the gut microbiota may contribute to strengthening immune system of the host. Mucus glycoproteins of the swiftlet’s edible nest are mainly constituted of numerous glycans which attached to the bird nest protein backbone. In this study, the glycans from the edible bird nest (EBN) were extracted from the native glycoprotein by the reaction of alkaline hydrolysis. The extracted glycan was purified using gel chromatography and the glycan’s purity was tested using FTIR spectroscopy. Molecular weight of the glycan was determined using gel electrophoresis. The extracted glycan was further tested for its ability to resist human digestion system to be a potential prebiotic compound. Results showed that the glycan of EBN with molecular weight in the range of 21.2 kDa to 66.6 kDa can resist human digestion, thus have a potential to be delivered into the gut environment and act as prebiotic. The potential prebiotic activity can be further study using a mixed culture of bacteria and/or selected probiotic strains.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of adding different concentrations of edible bird’s nest (EBN) which is secreted by swiftlet birds (Aerodramus fuciphagus), into EquiPlus® and E-Z Mixin® extenders on the quality of chilled Arabian stallion semen at various storage times (0, 24 and 48 h). Ten ejaculates were collected from five stallions, and diluted using the two extenders containing 0% (control), 0.12%, 0.24% and 0.24% of EBN + seminal plasma (SP). All the diluted semen samples were then cooled and stored at 5 °C, and examined at 0, 24 and 48 h. Sperm kinetic parameters were assessed using computer assisted sperm analysis (CASA) and viability were assessed using Hoechst33342/PI stain. In both extenders, total motility (TM) and progressive motility (PM) were significantly higher at 0.12% and 0.24% compared to 0.24% + SP at 24 and 48 h. At 0.12%, E-Z mixin® treated semen had significantly higher TM and PM than EquiPlus® at 24 and 48 h. At 0.12% and 0.24%, average path velocity (VAP), straight-line velocity (VSL) and curvilinear velocity (VCL) were significantly higher in E-Z mixin® treated semen compared to EquiPlus® at 24 and 48 h. Comparisons between the two extender types at different concentrations of EBN showed no significant difference in lateral head amplitude (ALH), linearity (LIN), straightness (STR), beat cross frequency (BCF) and viability, irrespective of the storage time. The percentage of viable was significantly higher in E-Z mixin® than EquiPlus® at 0 and 48 h in control and 0.12%. Supplementation of the E-Z mixin® extender with 0.12% and 0.24% EBN concentrations in the absence of SP provided better CASA parameters such as TM, PM, VAP, VSL, and VCL at 24 and 48 h storage time. In conclusion, the results of this study indicated that chilled semen from Arabian stallion that was extended using E-Z mixin® and supplemented with 0.12% and 0.24% EBN concentrations performed better and yielded superior results in sperm kinetic parameters and % viable compared to EquiPlus® at 24 and 48 h storage time.

Mursidah, Lahjie AM, Masjaya, Rayadin Y, Ruslim Y. 2020. The ecology, productivity and economic of swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus) farming in Kota Bangun, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 21: 3117-3126. Swiftlet nest is a high-value non-timber forest product produced from the saliva of swiftlet birds. While the demands for this commodity continue to increase in global market, careless harvesting techniques have diminished the swiftlet population and the production of swiftlet nests, threatening its sustainability. One effort to solve this problem is by developing swiftlet farming which involves building swiftlet. This research aimed to analyze the ecology, productivity, and financial feasibility of swiftlet farming of different-sized swiftlet houses in Kota Bangun Subdistrict, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. This research used qualitative and quantitative analysis methods. Data were collected using purposive sampling to determine the location, sample of swiftlet houses, and interviews with respondents. Quantitative analysis on the financial performance of swiftlet farming was analyzed using the net Benefit-Cost Ratio (net B/C), Net Present Value (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR) and Payback Period (PP) methods. The results showed that swiftlet nest production in Kota Bangun begins in the third year and ends between 27 and 45 years later, depending on the age and size of the house as well as the quality of the timber. The swiftlet house with a size of ​​512 m2 had the net B/C of 4.06, NPV of IDR 1,403.79 million, IRR of 30%, and PP of 5.44 years. The swiftlet house with a size of ​​1,600 m2 had the net B/C of 2.27, NPV of IDR 1,774.83 million, IRR of 24.09%, and PP of 9.4 years. Our study suggests that swiftlet farming is financially highly feasible, especially for the swiftlet house with a size of 512 m2.

Elfita L, Wientarsih I, Sajuthi D, Bachtiar I, Darusman HS. 2020. The diversity in nutritional profile of farmed edible bird’s nests from several regions in Indonesia. Biodiversitas 21: 2362-2368. Edible bird’s nest (EBN) is produced by certain swiftlet species mainly Aerodramus fuciphagus. This study aimed to compare the composition of proximate, nitrite, nitrate, amino acid and protein profiles of EBNs collected from different regions in Indonesia (West Sumatra, South Sumatra, West Java, West Kalimantan, Central Sulawesi, and Southeast Sulawesi). The results showed that the order of proximate composition was protein (53.09-56.25%) > carbohydrate (19.57-23.04%) > moisture (17.08-21.50%) > ash (5.44-6.25%) > fat (0.07-0.57%). Nitrite and nitrate contents were 3.11-18.28 ppm and 650.11-1051.06 ppm, respectively. Amino acid analysis found that EBNs contained 18 amino acids, composed of ten essential amino acids and eight non-essential amino acids. Aspartic acid content of EBNs from West Sumatra and West Kalimantan (4.21 and 3.27%, respectively) were much higher than the one found in other regions, which was on the range of 0.32-0.37%. SDS-PAGE analysis demonstrated that majority of EBNs possessed seven protein bands with molecular weight range of 19.6 to 82.7 kDa. However, EBNs from West Sumatra and West Kalimantan showed abundant of protein with molecular weight of approximately 34.0 kDa. Thus, EBNs collected from different regions in Indonesia showed different nutritional profiles.

The edible bird's nest (EBN) of the swiftlet Aerodramus fuciphagus, a mucin glycoprotein, is usually white in color, but there also exist the more desirable red or "blood" EBN. The basis of the red color has been a puzzle for a long time. Here, we show that the nitration of the tyrosyl residue to the 3-nitrotyrosyl (3-NTyr) residue in the glycoprotein is the cause of the red color. Evidence for the 3-NTyr residue comes from (a) the quantitative analysis of 3-NTyr in EBN by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, (b) the ultraviolet-visible absorption spectra of red EBN as a function of pH being similar to 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT), (c) the change in the color of red EBN from yellow at low pH to red at high pH just like 3-NT, and (d) strong Raman nitro bands at 1330 cm-1 (symmetric -NO2 stretch) and 825 cm-1 (-NO2 scissoring bend) for red EBN. The high concentrations of nitrite and nitrate in red EBN are also explained.

Edible bird's nests (EBNs) are the nests of swiftlets, made from the saliva of the male swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus). Due to their nutritional value, EBNs are recognized as a premium food and highly in demand among the Chinese community. EBNs are commonly adulterated with cheaper ingredients and efforts are being made to combat these activities using different analytical techniques. In this study, nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR) metabolomic fingerprinting combined with chemometrics, particularly principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal partial least square-discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA), was employed to detect adulteration in EBNs. Authentic EBN samples from different locations in Malaysia were used and adulteration was simulated using nutrient agar, collagen, gelatine, karaya gum and melamine at 1, 5 and 10% w/w, respectively. Overall, unsupervised PCA was able to distinguish authentic EBNs from those adulterated with nutrient agar, collagen and gelatine down to 5% w/w adulteration level. As for EBN adulterated with karaya gum and melamine, a distinct peak can be observed at 1.91 ppm and 6.10 ppm, respectively. The supervised OPLS-DA predictive model was able to differentiate authentic EBNs from simulated adulterated EBNs with 100% accuracy. Conclusively, 1H-NMR metabolomics combined with chemometrics could be a potential tool for the detection of adulteration in EBN.

The increasing demand and consumption of edible bird's nest (EBN) by people worldwide has contributed to the food fraud issue. To ensure the authenticity of EBN in regard to their origin, rapid and accurate analytical methods are very much needed. In this study, forensically informative nucleotide sequencing (FINS) technique based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences, and phylogenetic analysis was performed to identify the species and production origins of raw and commercial EBNs. The cytochrome b (Cyt b), NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 (ND2), 12S ribosomal RNA and beta-fibrinogen intron 7 gene markers used were able to identify and classify EBN produced by Aerodramus fuciphagus and Aerodramus maximus. It was newly discovered that EBN from man-made houses and natural caves were genetically differentiable using the mitochondrial Cyt b and ND2 genes. The phylogenetic results revealed that all EBN samples were well-separated into two groups following their species origin and production origin. A rapid and cost-effective identification alternative of SYBR green I based real-time PCR assay targeting a 177 bp of the mitochondrial Cyt b gene was developed and it efficiently differentiated genuine EBN from counterfeits. This FINS and SYBR green I based real-time PCR are highly sensitive, specific and reliable methods for identification of EBN origins and could be useful for preventing fraud substitution and mislabelling of EBN to ensure food safety.

Environmental conditions and biological rhythms can affect the behavioural routines of animals. However, the effect of lunar phase on individual roosting behaviour remains uninvestigated in most species. Here, we monitored the effect of lunar phase, sunset time, temperature, humidity and the breeding chronology on the roosting patterns of the Edible-Nest Swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus) of the Andaman Islands, across breeding stages. Counts revealed that more than 98% of the population returned to the roosting caves during peak roosting hours, i.e. 1700–2000h. The proportion of birds roosting in caves was highest during the ‘new moon’ phase and when birds were at the nest-building and fledging stage of their breeding cycle. We confirmed that the variation in the roosting behaviour of the Edible-Nest Swiftlet is linked both to the stages in the breeding cycle and to the lunar phase. We hypothesise that the cause for the lunarphilic roosting pattern is an anti-predator strategy. Feeding habits and f...

Edible bird's nest (Aedrodramus fuchipagus) contains EGF (Epidermal Growth Factor) and sialic acid which is useful in wound healing. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of edible bird's nest on the injured Alloxan-induced rats to form optimal ointment formulation of edible bird's nest (Aedrodramus fuchipagus) which can heal wounds. The method used in this research is experimental using 25 Sprague Dawley rats divided into 5 groups in which each group consists of 5 rats; Group I was the control group (Vaseline + Betadine®), Group II, III, and IV were the group of EBN + Betadine® with concentrations of 10%, 20%, and 30%; and Group V was of the Sanoskin Meladerm® (SM) + Betadine® group. The rats were modeled for diabetes by inducing Alloxan (150mg/kgBW/i.p) and exposed with DM when the blood sugar level was > 200 mg/dL. The back skins were sliced as long as 2 cm and 2 mm depth and were given treatment according to the group, 1 x daily for 10 days. Parameters that were noticed were length wound, length of the dry wound, and the number of days of scab formation. The results obtained in the control group were 10%, 20%, and 30% on the EBN group, and the SM group on the 9th day were 1.3±0.2449, 0.34±0.427, 0.56±0.4586, 0±0, 0±0. The results of the average length of the dry wound in the control group were 10%, 20%, and 30% on the EBN group, and the SM group were 1±0.5, 2±1.5, 4±0, 8, 1±0.8, and 2±0.63. While the result of the average day of scab formation on the control group was 10%, 20%, and 30% on the EBN groups, SM Groups were 1.3±0.47, 2.2±1.6, 3.8±0.8, 1±0, and 2±0.63. Based on Kruskal Wallis test, there were significant differences in the wound length among treatment groups (sig 0.013) and significant differences in dry wounds among treatment groups (sig 0.046), but there was no difference in the time of scab formation among treatment groups (sig 0.066). In conclusion, edible bird’s nest (Aedrodramus fuchipagus) ointment concentration of 30% is the most optimal ointment to wound healing in Alloxan-induced male rats when compared to Sanoskin Melladerm.

This paper is based on 6 months of ethnographic, multi-sited research in Malaysia, and investigates the relatively recent phenomenon of edible birds’ nest farming in urban areas (‘swiftlet farming’). Swiftlet farms are typically converted shophouses or other buildings which have been modified for the purpose of harvesting the nests of the Edible-nest Swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus). I use the controversy over urban swiftlet farming in the Malaysian city of George Town, Penang, to examine discourses used by key stakeholders to shape debates over the place of non-human animals in cities. By considering everyday experiences of urban swiftlet farming, I explore how this burgeoning industry is perceived amongst residents, and how it is deemed to be (in)appropriate within the political, economic and cultural landscape of George Town. Yet, I also consider how farmers have sought to contest these discourses on ideological and normative grounds. In so doing, I place the cultural animal geographies literature in conversation with emergent literature on landscape and urban political ecology. Such a framing allows for a critical evaluation of the controversies surrounding this case, and their implications for human-animal cohabitation in cities. The paper reflects on the implications of this case for how we regulate human-animal relations and live in contemporary cities, and the crucial role of animals in altering urban form, aesthetics and everyday life, particularly in non-Western contexts.

Context: Indonesia is the largest producer of edible bird’s nest (EBN) in the world. Previous research proved that epidermal growth factor (EGF) was detected from edible bird’s nest extract. EGF will increase the metabolism of skin cells and can lighten the skin EGF will increase the metabolism of skin cells and can lighten the skin. Aims: This research aimed to formulate and prove the lightening and the moisturizing effect of EBN cream on white mice. Materials and Methods: The 28 mice were divided into four group treatment. EBN 40% were formulated into cream with two formula types: water in oil (W/O) and oil in water (O/W). Before the treatment, white mice were exposed to UVA radiation until skin color level was 4. For 14 days, white mice were treated and observed skin color level and moisture content by skin analyzer. Results: The skin color level was 1 on day 8 (O/W), on day 9 (W/O), on day 8 (positive control), and showed skin color level was 4 on day 14 (negative control). The average water content on day 14 was 53.70 ± 1.21 (O/W), 50.13 ± 1.39 (W/O), 53.88 ± 0.88 (positive control), and 21.48 ± 2.90 (negative control). Conclusion: No significant difference was observed in lightening effect (Sig. 0.495) and moisturizing effect (Sig. 0.564) between O/W cream and W/O creams. W/O cream has good adhesion and O/W cream has good dispersion.

Nest sites were used special place of swiftlet bird. Nest of swiftlet bird are usually dificult to reach place. This study want to know the potential for nest sites in a swiftlet bird house. Four types of different nest sites were installed at nesting and roving room, made by wood, bamboo, aluminium, concreate at the swiftlet bird house. And then, the breeding swiftlet birds using the different nest sites type were recorded during the breeding season for finding the effectiveness of four different nest sites type. Nest-site with the different material were installed using materials made of wood, bamboo, aluminium and concrete. The resulats were that 25 % (n=6) for wood material, 41.66% (n=10) for bamboo, 29.66%(n=7) for aluminium and 4.16% (n=1) for concrete From this result, the breeding swiftlet bird showed preference for better better bamboo material for nest-site when there were abundant in nesting room 83%(n=20)

Materials and construction methods of nests vary between bird species and at present, very little is known about the relationships between architecture and function in these structures. This study combines computational and experimental techniques to study the structural biology of nests fabricated by the edible nest swiftlet Aerodramus fuciphagus on vertical rock walls using threaded saliva. Utilizing its own saliva as a construction material allows the swiftlets full control over the structural features at a very high resolution in a process similar to additive manufacturing. It was hypothesized that the mechanical properties would vary between the structural regions of the nest (i.e. anchoring to the wall, center of the cup, and rim) mainly by means of architecture to offer structural support and bear the natural loads of birds and eggs. We generated numerical models of swiftlet nests from μCT scans based on collected swiftlet nests, which we loaded with a force of birds and eggs. This was done in order to study and assess the stress distribution that characterizes the specific nest’s architecture, evaluate its strength and weak points if any, as well as to understand the rationale and benefits that underlie this natural structure. We show that macro- and micro-scale structural patterns are identical in all nests, suggesting that their construction is governed by specific design principles. The nests’ response to applied loads of birds and eggs in finite element simulations suggests a mechanical overdesign strategy, which ensures the stresses experienced by its components in any loading scenario are actively minimized to be significantly smaller than the tensile fracture strength of the nests’ material. These findings highlight mechanical overdesign as a biological strategy for resilient, single-material constructions designed to protect eggs and hatchlings.

The chemistry of mucin glycoprotein in edible bird’s nest (EBN), an esteemed delicacy and broad-spectrum supplement, produced by swiftlet Aerodramus fuciphagus has been explored in this thesis. In the first part of the project, the use of Raman microspectroscopy and thermal analysis tools (thermogravimetry, differential thermogravimetry, and differential scanning calorimetry) has provided new insights into the understanding of the properties of EBN mucin glycoprotein. The unique Raman spectrum shows characteristic bands of both protein and carbohydrate, justifying that EBN is a mucin glycoprotein, while the unique thermal analysis curves show the moisture content, thermal decomposition pattern, and ceramic ash content of EBN. Adulteration of EBN will give rise to a different Raman spectrum or thermal analysis curve, and thus the unique fingerprinting can be used to authenticate EBN samples. Overall, these analytical tools show high potential as rapid, simple, and label-free techniques to contend with the rampant adulteration of EBN. In the second part of the project, the molecular basis and chemistry behind the color of the more desirable red EBN or ‘blood’ nest that has been a puzzle for a long time have been investigated. Through the qualitative and quantitative analysis by Raman microspectroscopy, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and UV-visible absorption spectroscopy, the nitration of protein tyrosine, which is recognized as ubiquitous in several diseases, to produce 3-nitrotyrosyl residue in mucin glycoprotein is found to be the real cause of the red coloration. The discovery of the underlying mechanism is useful when it comes to achieving a holistic evaluation of the benefits and values of EBN, and the findings could have refined the putative benefits of red EBN, which might have been touted for centuries. Doctor of Philosophy

Edible bird nest is a nest made from saliva of swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus). In term of food safety, nitrite is one of chemical hazards that should be checked in edible bird nest (EBN) which can affect human health. Occurance of nitrite in edible bird nest is determined from its level in uncleaned EBN and cleaning process. This preliminary study was aimed to check level of nitrite in edible bird nest taken from swiftlet houses in South Sulawesi. The nitrite analysis using spectrophotometer showed that nitrite content is varied among swiftlet houses ranged from 4.7 µg/g to 164.4 µg/g. This result showed that most EBN sample in uncleaned South Sulawesi edible bird nest is below the limit of nitrite content regulated by Indonesian government which is 125 µg/g. This finding also indicates that good farming practice should be introduced into swiftlet farmers.

Edible bird nest (EBN) is a product obtained from the salivary excretion of different species of swiftlets during the breeding season. It is an expensive health food product. The raw EBN needs intensive cleaning before it can be consumed. Currently, EBN is increasingly used in cosmetic products. The cleaning procedure generally produced about 30 % (w/w) of waste. To date, there is no work conducted to study the composition of the waste recovered from the cleaning process and converting the waste into useful downstream products. Therefore, the aim of this study is to determine the composition of the EBN wastes and to formulate a value added facial cream product from the EBN waste. EBN waste (residues) was collected from the cleaning water of EBN samples from the swiftlet species Aerodramusfuciphagus using the centrifugation method. The chemical composition of the EBN waste (residues) was analyzed qualitatively using the FTIR technique. Similarly, the different grades of processed EBN samples (2A, 3A, 4A, 5A and biscuit white) from the swiftlet species Aerodramusfuciphagus were quantitatively analyzed using the elemental analyzer. The residual EBN showed high protein content (47.33±3.09 %) and carbohydrate content of 2.4±0.37 %. Interestingly, nitrite, nitrate and lead were not present in the EBN waste. Thus, EBN waste is considered safe to formulate a facial cream. The collagen content in EBN is good as an anti-aging beauty cream. Since the EBN is a very expensive product, the residual EBN waste has good potential to formulate a value added product without any loss in its nutritional health benefits to achieve a similar effect as EBN. The high protein content retained in EBN waste makes the wash off water from EBN washings a suitable nutrient – rich component for the formulation of health and beauty products.

Edible bird nest (EBN) is a powerful and nutritious food usually consumed by the Chinese Community and it is considered among the most expensive animal products which are made up by salivation of swiftlets (Aerodramus fuciphagus). The other 5% to 10% are made up of foreign matters such as feathers, faecal matter and dirt. The EBN is graded based on its aesthetics as well as its cleaning processes. The aim of this study were to determine and compare EBN of different grades (A, B, C, D) in terms of proximate composition and amino acid profile, and next to enzymatically hydrolyse and determine the degree of hydrolysis (DH) and the recovery percentage of EBN hydrolysates. The enzymatic hydrolysis were performed as an alternative cleaning process of the various grades of EBN, where the glycoproteins were hydrolysed to glycopeptides, making them soluble and leaving behind other insoluble impurities. The results in this study showed that EBN contained high crude protein content: 60.59% (EBNA), 59.50% (EBNB), 54.29% (EBNC) and 56.57% (EBND). Lower grade EBNs (EBNC and EBND) has much higher ash content, i.e. impurities, compared to higher grade EBNs (EBNA and EBNB). In terms of amino acid profile, EBND showed the highest total amino acids compared to EBNA, EBNB and EBNC, with serine and aspartic acid being the main amino acids. Treating the EBN with alcalase for 1.0 – 4.0 hours produced hydrolysates with different degree of hydrolysis (DH), ranging from 10.83 %DH (EBNA) to 13.79 %DH (EBNC). The recovery of EBN after enzymatic hydrolysis range from 89 % (EBNB) to 99% (EBNA). Overall, results showed nutritional composition and amino acid profile of EBN of various grades were significantly different in its nutritional quality, while the enzymatic hydrolysis has successfully separated the impurities from the lower grades EBN.

Edible bird’s nest (EBN; Yan Wo), or cubilose, is originated from the salivary secretion of Aerodramus fuciphagus. In Asia, EBN is famous for its unproven skin lightening function. Here, we aim to reveal the active ingredients of EBN responsible for skin lightening function. Three major fractions were isolated from EBN water extract by chromatography using LC-MS/MS, bioactivities of these isolated fractions were analyzed by assays of tyrosinase, melanocytes and 3D human skin model, from which, N-acetylneuraminic acid (NANA), the second isolated fraction showed an inhibition effect on tyrosinase activity in a dose-dependent manner. The IC50 of tyrosinase originated from mushroom and human was 16.93 mM and 0.10 mM respectively. Furthermore, only EBN with higher content of NANA (e.g. White and Red EBN), but not EBN with less NANA (e.g. Grass EBN), showed promising skin lightening function. This is the first report to reveal NANA being an active ingredient of EBN on skin lightening function.

Edible bird's nest (EBN) is widely consumed as a delicacy and traditional medicine amongst the Chinese. In the present study, for the first time, the antioxidant properties of an EBN pepsin-trypsin hydrolysate of the swiftlet species Aerodramus fuciphagus and its ultrafiltration fractions were investigated. Thirteen peptides with molecular weights between 514.29 and 954.52 Da were identified in the EBN fraction with the use of mass spectrometry. Two novel pentapeptides Pro-Phe-His-Pro-Tyr and Leu-Leu-Gly-Asp-Pro, corresponding to f134-138 and f164-168 of cytochrome b of A. fuciphagus, indicated the highest ORAC values of 14.95 and 14.32 μM of TE μM-1 peptide, respectively. Both purified peptides showed resistance against simulated gastrointestinal proteases. In addition, both peptides had no in vitro cytotoxicity on human lung MRC-5 cells and prevented human liver carcinoma HepG2 cellular damage caused by hydroxyl radicals. Therefore, it is suggested that EBN protein hydrolysates are a good source of natural antioxidants and could be applied as nutraceutical compounds.

Edible bird’s nest (EBN) is widely consumed in South-East Asia as a health food product. In recent years, the adulteration of EBN is quite common due to its high economic value and limited supplies of the natural authentic product. Authentication and traceability of EBN demands time-consuming sequential analytical measurements to confirm that the product quality meets technical and regulatory requirements. Mid Infrared spectroscopy combined with chemometric analysis by Data-Driven Soft Independent Modelling of Class Analogy (DD-SIMCA) was used in this study to screen Malaysian EBNs for structural adulterants and for confirmation of geographical origin. The samples used were authentic processed EBNs of different grades (2A, 3A, 4A and 5A) from the swiftlet species Aerodramus fuciphagus supplied by Ministry of Health, Malaysia. Similarly, adulterants commonly used in EBN namely agar, Karaya gum, bovine gelatin, fish skin, melamine and porcine gelatine were also characterized. Adulterant mixtures were prepared gravimetrically at concentrations of 1, 5 and 10%w/w by combining appropriate quantities of adulterants with individual authentic EBN samples. Samples were then analyzed by Mid-Infrared – Attenuated Total Reflectance (MIR-ATR) spectroscopy. All test samples are properly categorized as members of the target class. However, 61% of the tested adulterated EBNs were correctly classified as ‘alien’ or non-authentic samples. The sensitivity and specifity values for DD-SIMCA models applied to origin determination ranged from 90 to 100% for production regions from Kelantan, Perak and Malacca. MIR-ATR spectroscopy in combination with DD-SIMCA modelling has shown potential as a rapid screening technique to detect the presence adulterants and confirm the provenance of EBN produced in Malaysia. Further work is required to validate the approach with a larger set of authentic samples and for a wider range of adulterants including flavour enhancers and preservatives.

The Swiftlet, Aerodramus fuciphagus Thunberg, 1812 (A. fuciphagus) is known for its edible nest building ability. The present study was conducted to examine and describe the morphology of lingual apparatus and associated structures which contribute to the nest building ability of the A. fuciphagus. Gross examination was done on the upper and lower jaw of the beak prior to tissue processing and sectioning. Following fixation and embedding, cross-sections of the lower jaw were made and stained with hematoxylineosin (HE) and observed under the light microscope. Microscopy examination revealed various structures within the lingual apparatus, which include stratified squamous epithelial lining, lingual salivary glands, hyaline cartilage and intrinsic skeletal muscle. Paired sublingual salivary glands were also observed. Taken together, these findings may provide some new insights in understanding the role of the lingual apparatus and the salivary glands of the Swiftlet (A. fuciphagus) especially in its unique nest building ability.