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The developmental cognitive neuroscience literature has grown exponentially over the last decade. This paper reviews the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) literature on brain function development of typically late developing functions of cognitive and motivation control, timing and attention as well as of resting state neural networks. Evidence shows that between childhood and adulthood, concomitant with cognitive maturation, there is progressively increased functional activation in task-relevant lateral and medial frontal, striatal and parieto-temporal brain regions that mediate these higher level control functions. This is accompanied by progressively stronger functional inter-regional connectivity within task-relevant fronto-striatal and fronto-parieto-temporal networks. Negative age associations are observed in earlier developing posterior and limbic regions, suggesting a shift with age from the recruitment of “bottom-up” processing regions towards “top-down” fronto-cortical and fronto-subcortical connections, leading to a more mature, supervised cognition. The resting state fMRI literature further complements this evidence by showing progressively stronger deactivation with age in anti-correlated task-negative resting state networks, which is associated with better task performance. Furthermore, connectivity analyses during the resting state show that with development increasingly stronger long-range connections are being formed, for example, between fronto-parietal and fronto-cerebellar connections, in both task-positive networks and in task-negative default mode networks, together with progressively lesser short-range connections, suggesting progressive functional integration and segregation with age. Overall, evidence suggests that throughout development between childhood and adulthood, there is progressive refinement and integration of both task-positive fronto-cortical and fronto-subcortical activation and task-negative deactivation, leading to a more mature and controlled cognition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Several independent studies have demonstrated that small amounts of in-scanner motion systematically bias estimates of resting-state functional connectivity. This confound is of particular importance for studies of neurodevelopment in youth because motion is strongly related to subject age during this period. Critically, the effects of motion on connectivity mimic major findings in neurodevelopmental research, specifically an age-related strengthening of distant connections and weakening of short-range connections. Here, in a sample of 780 subjects ages 8–22, we re-evaluate patterns of change in functional connectivity during adolescent development after rigorously controlling for the confounding influences of motion at both the subject and group levels. We find that motion artifact inflates both overall estimates of age-related change as well as specific distance-related changes in connectivity. When motion is more fully accounted for, the prevalence of age-related change as well as the strength of distance-related effects is substantially reduced. However, age-related changes remain highly significant. In contrast, motion artifact tends to obscure age-related changes in connectivity associated with segregation of functional brain modules; improved preprocessing techniques allow greater sensitivity to detect increased within-module connectivity occurring with development. Finally, we show that subject’s age can still be accurately estimated from the multivariate pattern of functional connectivity even while controlling for motion. Taken together, these results indicate that while motion artifact has a marked and heterogeneous impact on estimates of connectivity change during adolescence, functional connectivity remains a valuable phenotype for the study of neurodevelopment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background The human waking EEG spectrum shows high heritability and stability and, despite maturational cortical changes, high test-retest reliability in children and teens. These phenomena have also been shown to be region specific. We examined the stability of the morphology of the wake EEG spectrum in children aged 11 to 13 years recorded over weekly intervals and assessed whether the waking EEG spectrum in children may also be trait-like. Three minutes of eyes open and three minutes of eyes closed waking EEG was recorded in 22 healthy children once a week for three consecutive weeks. Eyes open and closed EEG power density spectra were calculated for two central (C3LM and C4LM) and two occipital (O1LM and O2LM) derivations. A hierarchical cluster analysis was performed to determine whether the morphology of the waking EEG spectrum between 1 and 20 Hz is trait-like. We also examined the stability of the alpha peak using an ANOVA. Results The morphology of the EEG spectrum recorded from central derivations was highly stable and unique to an individual (correctly classified in 85% of participants), while the EEG recorded from occipital derivations, while stable, was much less unique across individuals (correctly classified in 42% of participants). Furthermore, our analysis revealed an increase in alpha peak height concurrent with a decline in the frequency of the alpha peak across weeks for occipital derivations. No changes in either measure were observed in the central derivations. Conclusions Our results indicate that across weekly recordings, power spectra at central derivations exhibit more "trait-like" characteristics than occipital derivations. These results may be relevant for future studies searching for links between phenotypes, such as psychiatric diagnoses, and the underlying genes (i.e., endophenotypes) by suggesting that such studies should make use of more anterior rather than posterior EEG derivations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the differences between children's voices and adult voices. We give an overview of the anatomy in the head and neck and specifically the anatomy of the respiratory system and the larynx. We also describe the development of children's voices including different physiological measures and voice quality. The development and consequences for voice production and voice quality are addressed and related to gender differences in the growing child. We also discuss the prevalence of voice problems and hoarseness in children. Environmental and other factors contributing to voice problems in children are described, and finally, issues related to intervention and evidence-based practice are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trauma is associated with alterations in cortisol activity and reactivity that may vary in relationship to development, time, predisposition, personality, the nature of a traumatic event, and other circumstances. This article reviews existing research findings related to cortisol in laboratory, general stress, and traumatic conditions. We discuss variables that may influence cortisol activity and reactivity in an effort to discover what is known and what still needs to be learned about cortisol levels in youth exposed to traumas. The extant literature points to a number of potentially negative physical, emotional, and behavioral outcomes of altered cortisol reactivity, which suggests a clear need for early and effective interventions. Furthermore, research has often provided mixed findings from relatively small samples of youth. Improving the understanding of cortisol activity and reactivity in children and adolescents will necessitate examining large samples of different developmental age groups across time. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Background: DSM-IV specifies three ADHD subtypes; the combined, the hyperactive-impulsive and the inattentive. Little is known about the developmental relationships underlying these subtypes. The objective of this study was to describe the development of parent-reported hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattention symptoms from childhood to adolescence and to study their associations with genetic factors, family risk, and later adjustment problems in early adulthood. Method: Data in this study comes from 1,450 twin pairs participating in a population-based, longitudinal twin study. Developmental trajectories were defined using parent-ratings of hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattention symptoms at age 8-9, 13-14, and 16-17. Twin methods were used to explore genetic influences on trajectories. Family risk measures included low socioeconomic status, large family size and divorce. Self-ratings of externalizing and internalizing problems in early adulthood were used to examine adjustment problems related to the different trajectory combinations. Results: We found two hyperactivity-impulsivity trajectories (low, high/decreasing) and two inattention trajectories (low, high/increasing). Twin modeling revealed a substantial genetic component underlying both the hyperactivity-impulsivity and the inattention trajectory. Joint trajectory analyses identified four groups of adolescents with distinct developmental patterns of hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattention: a low/low group, a primarily hyperactive, a primarily inattentive and a combined (high/high) trajectory type. These trajectory combinations showed discriminant relations to adjustment problems in early adulthood. The hyperactive, inattentive and combined trajectory subtypes were associated with higher rates of family risk environments compared to the low/low group. Conclusion: Study results showed that for those on a high trajectory, hyperactivity decreased whereas inattention increased. The combinations of these trajectories lend developmental insight into how children shift from (i) a combined to inattentive subtype, and (ii) a hyperactive-impulsive to a combined subtype. This study suggests that ADHD subtypes cannot be viewed as discrete and stable categories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This longitudinal study identified common summer care arrangements for adolescents and examined whether those arrangements predicted risk for obesity (Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥ 85th percentile for age and gender) the following school year. Participants were a nationally representative sample of 1766 adolescents ages 10–18 from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics–Child Development Supplement. Results showed that, beyond measures of BMI taken before the summer and several demographic aspects known to predict obesity, youth whose summer arrangements involved regular participation in organized activities (e.g., sports) showed significantly lower risk for obesity than other youth. This was most evident during early adolescence. Youth whose regular summer arrangement was predominated by parent care without organized activity participation showed the greatest risk for obesity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article presents abstracts on planning literature which include approaches to empirical work in regional economics, understanding the barriers to social adaptation, and management of large city regions.

To analyse the associations between body mass index (BMI) and health-related behaviours among Portuguese adolescents based on the three waves of the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) survey conducted in Portugal. Data were derived from the three waves (1998, 2002 and 2006) of the World Health Organization collaborative cross-national survey HBSC, including 17 024 public school students (6th, 8th and 10th grades). Separate analyses of the variables under study were individually conducted for each of the three waves of the survey, and for the total sample according to BMI (normal-weight and overweight/obese) using Chi square. At a second step, a multivariate logistic regression model was tested using all the variables that were significantly associated with normal or excess BMI values at a bivariate level, in order to determine whether they would predict being overweight, when controlling for all the others in the model. Overweight adolescents reported their health as fair or poor more often, reported a poorer perception of academic achievement, were more likely than their peers to describe themselves as 'unhappy', and reported irritability or bad temper more often. According to our findings, being overweight can be predicted by being a male, being younger, having low body satisfaction, having a perception of poor academic achievement, of poor personal health and of being unhappy. Being overweight was not significantly predicted by the year of data collection. Overweight adolescents were consistently far more likely to exhibit difficulties with their physical and emotional health when compared with their non-overweight peers. Although the effects of overweight on psychosocial functioning remain incompletely defined, they may constitute important determinants of overweight persistency, as well as have a detrimental effect on the adolescent's developmental process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Gyrification is the process by which the brain undergoes changes in surface morphology to create sulcal and gyral regions. The period of greatest development of brain gyrification is during the third trimester of pregnancy, a period of time in which the brain undergoes considerable growth. Little is known about changes in gyrification during childhood and adolescence, although considering the changes in gray matter volume and thickness during this time period, it is conceivable that alterations in the brain surface morphology could also occur during this period of development. The formation of gyri and sulci in the brain allows for compact wiring that promotes and enhances efficient neural processing. If cerebral function and form are linked through the organization of neural connectivity, then alterations in neural connectivity, i.e., synaptic pruning, may also alter the gyral and sulcal patterns of the brain. This paper reviews developmental theories of gyrification, computational techniques for measuring gyrification, and the potential interaction between gyrification and neuronal connectivity. We also present recent findings involving alterations in gyrification during childhood and adolescence. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The current longitudinal study examined adolescent gender differences in the developmental changes and relational correlates of secrecy from parents. For 4 successive years, starting in the second year of junior high (mean age at Time 1 = 13.2 years, SD = 0.51), 149 male and 160 female Dutch adolescents reported on secrecy from their parents and the quality of the parent-child relationship. Latent growth curve modeling revealed a linear increase in secrecy, which was significantly faster for boys than for girls. Moreover, cross-lagged panel analyses showed clear concurrent and longitudinal linkages between secrecy from parents and poorer parent-child relationship quality in girls. In boys, much less strong linkages were found between poorer relationships and secrecy from parents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

- This article provides an overview of existing research on the prevalence and predictors of adolescent self-care and on the consequences associated with it. Self-care, in which the young are left unsupervised during out-of-school hours, is a common experience for millions of American youth, and existing studies suggest that this arrangement may represent a risk for the development of behavior problems. However, the behavior problems associated with self-care depend on both individual and environmental factors and are most likely to develop when self-care (a) occurs out of the home, (b) involves permissive parenting and/or low parental monitoring, (c) takes place in neighborhoods with high levels of crime and disorganization, (d) involves adolescents with preexisting behavioral problems, and (e) represents an intensive and persistent arrangement. Following a survey of current research on self-care, recommendations are offered regarding future research and policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study provides additional data on the measurement of children's and adolescents' appraisals of interparental conflict using the Children's Perception of Interparental Conflict (CPIC) Scale (Grych, Seid, & Fincham, 1992). Data from the original sample of early adolescents (N = 222) on which the CPIC Scale was developed and the authors' own data from late adolescents (N = 483) are compared using confirmatory factor analyses at both the item and subscale levels. The results indicate that the factor structure at the item level of analysis is similar across early and late adolescents, indicating that the nine theoretically derived subscales are separate aspects of interparental conflict for both developmental groups. In addition, the subscales are found to produce five factors for both early and late adolescents. Implications of these findings for cross-sectional and longitudinal studies of interparental conflict and child/adolescent outcomes are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Preterm birth is associated with a high prevalence of neuropsychiatric impairment in childhood and adolescence, but the neural correlates underlying these disorders are not fully understood. Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging techniques have been used to investigate subtle differences in cerebral growth and development among children and adolescents born preterm or with very low birth weight. Diffusion tensor imaging and computer-assisted morphometric techniques (including voxel-based morphometry and deformation-based morphometry) have identified abnormalities in tissue microstructure and cerebral morphology among survivors of preterm birth at different ages, and some of these alterations have specific functional correlates. This chapter reviews the literature reporting differential brain development following preterm birth, with emphasis on the morphological changes that correlate with neuropsychiatric impairment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

It is important to study how children and adolescents cope with stressors in sport because effective coping enhances sport experiences and prevents psychological and physiological problems that can lead to sport withdrawal. The purpose of this review was to summarize the existing child and adolescent coping research to establish how coping changes with development in the achievement context of sport. We reviewed and summarized relevant coping research published from 1980 to 2004 using a 'content analysis' approach to identify consistencies and limitations in this literature. Four content areas were examined: coping responses, gender differences, consistency of coping/coping style, and coping effectiveness. Ways in which coping changes with development from childhood to adolescence were examined within each of these content areas. Fundamental future research questions and implications for research design are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Frontal lobe functions include a range of cognitive, emotional, and social abilities that enable goal-directed behavior. Although a number of studies have plotted the development of frontal lobe functions in childhood, few have extended into the adolescent years. There is also little information on which cognitive and emotional components of frontal functioning may be correlated. The aims of this study were to identify and compare age effects on different components of frontal functioning in childhood and adolescence and to examine whether abstract reasoning skills were associated with levels of emotional intelligence and social sensitivity. Twenty children (ages 9-18) were recruited from the local community for a study of normal adolescent brain development. All subjects were free of psychiatric or developmental disorders, as determined by a structured interview. Subjects completed a comprehensive neuropsychological test battery, as well as self-report measures of social sensitivity (anxiety) and emotional intelligence. Significant age effects were found for measures of abstract reasoning, response inhibition, and attentional set shifting. Levels of social anxiety increased moderately with age, although not significantly at this sample size. Abstract reasoning skills correlated positively with levels of social anxiety but not emotional intelligence. The pattern of re- suits suggests differential developmental trajectories across various cognitive and emotional domains of frontal lobe functioning in childhood and adolescence. Increased abstract reasoning ability may be associated with increased vulnerability to social anxiety during this period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Commentary to: Is ‘age at first drink’ a useful concept in alcohol research and prevention? We doubt that [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]