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Although the influence of intent understanding on children's moral development has been long studied, little research has examined the influence of belief understanding on that development. In two studies we presented children with morally relevant belief vignettes to examine the extent to which they incorporate both intent and belief information in their moral judgments. In Study 1 (N = 64), 5-year-olds with higher false belief understanding (FBU) rated agents with false beliefs as more positively intentioned in good intent trials (even though the outcome was bad) than in bad intent trials (even though the outcome was good). In contrast, 4-year-olds with higher FBU were generally unable to integrate their belief understanding with their moral evaluations, performing no better on intention questions than children with lower FBU. Neither age group significantly differentiated reward and punishments as a function of intent when a false belief was involved. In Study 2 (N = 109 children, N = 42 adults), we found that by simplifying our study design and reducing the task demands, 4-year-olds with higher FBU were able to make appropriate intent judgments. Yet, as in Study 1, all children had difficulty assigning punishment/reward based on intent. For both moral intentions and moral consequences, 4- and 5-year-olds with higher FBU differed from those of adults in several respects, indicating that moral reasoning develops substantially beyond the preschool years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The theory that footwear may change foot shape dates back 100 years. Since this period, research has revealed the anatomical and functional consequences that footwear can cause to the foot. Children's feet remain malleable as they undergo developmental changes until adolescence, which is why childhood is arguably a crucial period to understand how footwear can affect natural foot development. This review explored the development of the foot in children and adolescents and the methods used to measure the different foot structures; it comments on the key issues with some of these methods and gives direction for future research. Various internal and external factors can affect foot development; the main factors are age, gender, ethnicity, body mass index (BMI) and footwear habits. Research on how footwear can affect foot development has increased over the years and the final section of this review aimed to unpick the findings. Studies investigating the influence of footwear habits on foot length and width have established inconsistent findings. Many of the studies in the review did not control for internal and external factors that can affect foot development. There was also a limited number of studies that investigated hallux valgus angle and muscle strength differences in those with different footwear habits. Moreover, multiple studies in the final section of this review did not successfully examine the footwear habits of the participants and instead used observations or self-assessments, which is a major limitation. Future research should examine footwear behaviors and other confounding factors when investigating the development of the foot in children and adolescents. Moreover, researchers should critically evaluate the methods used to quantify the different structures of the foot to ensure valid and reliable parameters are being used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many sports, elite players outperform novices on tests for perceptual-cognitive skills, such as anticipation, decision-making and pattern recall. However, the developmental trajectory of these perceptual-cognitive skills has received limited attention. Therefore, this study examined the development of anticipation, decision-making and pattern recall in 202 female volleyball players aged between 7 and 26 years old. Participants were categorized into six age groups: U9, U11, U13, U15, U17 and Seniors. Using a video-based occlusion protocol, we assessed participants' ability to predict pass direction, decide the most optimal attack zone, or recall the opponents' defence positions. The results demonstrated that U17 and adult players had superior accuracy and shorter response times than younger players on all three tests. Notably, U9 players performed worse than older players on all tests. Binomial distributions showed that decision-making was above chance for U17 players and adults, whereas anticipation was above chance for almost all players. Our findings indicate that age-related improvements of perceptual-cognitive skills are evident at 11 years old. However, decision-making seems to develop considerably later than anticipation and pattern recall, suggesting different developmental trajectories for the different perceptual-cognitive skills. Longitudinal research regarding the development of perceptual-cognitive skills and their underlying mechanisms is warranted, as this could have important implications for talent detection and development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developmental research on Gestalt laws has previously revealed that, even as young as infancy, we are bound to group visual elements into unitary structures in accordance with a variety of organizational principles. Here, we focus on the developmental trajectory of both connection‐based and object‐based grouping, and investigate their impact on object formation in participants, aged 9–21 years old (N = 113), using a multiple‐object tracking paradigm. Results reveal a main effect of both age and grouping type, indicating that 9‐ to 21‐year‐olds are sensitive to both connection‐based and object‐based grouping interference, and tracking ability increases with age. In addition to its importance for typical development, these results provide an informative baseline to understand clinical aberrations in this regard. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? The origin of the Gestalt principles is still an ongoing debate: Are they innate, learned over time, or both? Developmental research has revealed how each Gestalt principle has its own trajectory and unique relationship to visual experience. Both connectedness and object‐based grouping play an important role in object formation during childhood. What does this study add? The study identifies how sensitivity to connectedness and object‐based grouping evolves in individuals, aged 9–21 years old. Using multiple‐object tracking, results reveal that the ability to track multiple objects increases with age. These results provide an informative baseline to understand clinical aberrations in different types of grouping. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Bipolar disorder (BD) is a severe mental illness that can have high costs for youths (<18 years old) and adults. Relative to healthy controls (HC), individuals with BD often show impaired attention, working memory, executive function, and cognitive flexibility (the ability to adapt to changing reward/punishment contingencies). In our study of youths and young adults with BD, we investigated 1) how cognitive flexibility varies developmentally in BD, and 2) whether it is independent of other executive function deficits associated with BD.Methods: We measured errors on a reversal-learning task, as well as spatial working memory and other executive function, among participants with BD (N=75) and HC (N=130), 7-27 years old. Regression analyses focused on the effects of diagnosis on reversal-learning errors, controlling for age, gender, IQ, spatial span, and executive function. Similar analyses examined non-reversal errors to rule out general task impairment.Results: Participants with BD, regardless of age, gender, or cognitive ability, showed more errors than HC on the response reversal stages of the cognitive flexibility task. However, participants with BD did not show more errors on non-reversal stages, even when controlling for other variables.Limitations: Study limitations include the cross-sectional, rather than longitudinal, design; inability to measure non-linear age effects; and inclusion of medicated participants and those with psychiatric comorbidity.Conclusions: Individuals with BD show a specific impairment in reversing a previously rewarded response, which persists across the transition from childhood to young adulthood. Tailored interventions targeting this deficit may be effective throughout this developmentally turbulent time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The modified Balance Error Scoring System (mBESS) and Y-Balance Test are common clinical measurements of postural control, but little is known about the effect of age on performance of these tasks. The purpose of this study was to examine how healthy child and adolescent athletes perform on 2 common clinical measurements of postural control.Hypothesis: Younger athletes would demonstrate poorer postural control compared with older athletes.Study Design: Cross-sectional study.Level Of Evidence: Level 3.Methods: Three hundred eighty-nine athletes between the ages of 10 and 18 years underwent an evaluation of postural control. Each participant completed the mBESS in the double-leg, single-leg, and tandem stances as well as the Y-Balance Test. Postural stability data were analyzed between age groups (10-12, 13-15, and 16-18 years) using univariate analyses of covariance.Results: The youngest athletes (10-12 years) had a greater mean number of errors in the single-leg stance of the mBESS than the 13- to 15-year-old and 16- to 18-year-old athletes (3.8, 3, and 2.5 errors, respectively; P < 0.01). They also had greater right to left asymmetry compared with the 16- to 18-year-old athletes on the Y-Balance Test in the posterolateral (6.8 and 3.8 cm, respectively; P = 0.006) and posteromedial (5.3 and 3.6 cm, respectively; P = 0.014) directions of movement.Conclusion: Athletes between the ages of 10 and 12 years performed worse on the single-leg stance of the mBESS and demonstrated more asymmetry on the Y-Balance Test in the posterolateral and posteromedial directions compared with older athletes.Clinical Relevance: In the absence of a baseline balance test for athletes younger than the age of 13 years, caution should be used in interpreting postural stability assessments, as age may be a modifying factor in performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trauma is associated with alterations in cortisol activity and reactivity that may vary in relationship to development, time, predisposition, personality, the nature of a traumatic event, and other circumstances. This article reviews existing research findings related to cortisol in laboratory, general stress, and traumatic conditions. We discuss variables that may influence cortisol activity and reactivity in an effort to discover what is known and what still needs to be learned about cortisol levels in youth exposed to traumas. The extant literature points to a number of potentially negative physical, emotional, and behavioral outcomes of altered cortisol reactivity, which suggests a clear need for early and effective interventions. Furthermore, research has often provided mixed findings from relatively small samples of youth. Improving the understanding of cortisol activity and reactivity in children and adolescents will necessitate examining large samples of different developmental age groups across time. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]