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Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs) play a crucial role in dynamic communication scenarios where fixed infrastructure is not feasible. This study investigates the Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) protocol within MANETs, focusing on its performance under varying node velocities. Using OPNET 14.5 software, we conducted a detailed simulation over a 1,000 m x 1,000 m area for 15 minutes. Key performance metrics such as throughput, load, total transmitted and received traffic, end-to-end delay, and route discovery were analyzed. The novelty of this approach lies in examining the impact of node velocity on DSR performance. Our results reveal a significant improvement in DSR efficiency with higher node velocities, particularly evident in the reduction of end-to-end delays by up to 23%. The throughput also showed a peak value of 75,000 bps initially, stabilizing at 36,000 bps, demonstrating the protocol's robustness under dynamic conditions. These findings underscore the DSR protocol's adaptability and effectiveness in high-mobility scenarios, highlighting its potential for reliable and efficient communication in rapidly changing mobile environments. This research provides valuable insights into DSR's dynamic behaviour, showcasing its flexibility and success in the ever-evolving world of mobile communications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the contemporary environment, mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) have become necessary. They are absolutely vital in a variety of situations, where setting up a network quickly is required; however, this is infeasible due to low resources. Ad hoc networks have many applications: education, on the front lines of battle, rescue missions, etc. These networks are distinguished by high mobility and constrained computing, storage, and energy capabilities. The main aim of this research is to create a method for identifying blackhole attacks through anomaly detection techniques utilizing Support Vector Machines (SVM). Our detection system looks at node activity to scan network traffic for irregularities. In blackhole scenarios, the attackers exhibit distinct behavioral characteristics that distinguish them from other nodes. This can be efficiently detected by the proposed SVM-based detection system. The proposed detection system is designed to analyze network traffic and identify anomalies by examining node behaviors. Specifically, in the context of blackhole threats, it distinguishes the attackers from normal nodes based on behavioral characteristics. Using this approach, the system effectively detects blackhole attacks. The results demonstrate a very high level of accuracy in detecting blackhole attacks, confirming its efficacy in ensuring the security of mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) by identifying and isolating malicious nodes. This solution is particularly valuable in scenarios like military operations and disaster management where a reliable communication system is crucial. Furthermore, the proposed detection method, ADS-SVM, was compared to two other methods (J48 classifier and NB classifier) from different researchers. The results indicate that ADS-SVM outperforms the other methods with a detection accuracy of 99.96%, surpassing the 99.2% achieved by J48 classifier and the 96.5% achieved by NB classifier. The results indicate that ADS-SVM is a highly efficient approach for identifying blackhole attacks in MANETs, potentially offering superior accuracy compared to other related methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Delay tolerant networks (DTNs) is a network evolved from mobile networks. Differing from the traditional network, which has a stable end‐to‐end transmission path, DTNs are sparse and intermittently connected mobile ad hoc network, which are widely used in harsh environments, such as battlefields, seabed, space communication networks, and so on. In DTNs, intermittent connectivity, partitioned network, long delays and node mobility characteristics make the network fail to communicate frequently, therefore, how to successfully forward the message is of extreme importance. Up to now, almost all the traditional models in DTNs use the store‐carry‐forward method. This paper proposes a novel clustered DTN routing model based on sensing node relationship strength. The routing mechanism takes advantage of the number of other nodes encountered by the nodes in the process of movement and the changes in the number of nodes to calculate the strength of the relationship between nodes, and clusters DTN routing according to the strength of the relationship between nodes. Moreover, the relationship between nodes in a cluster and other clusters is used to transmit messages between clusters, and messages are transmitted within clusters according to the strength of the relationship between nodes. Simulation results show that the routing mechanism not only increases the success rate of message transmission, but also reduces the transmission delay of messages and improves network performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the significant challenges of the Radio over fibre (RoF) Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol is the propagation delay. This delay can lead to serious issues, such as higher propagation delay resulting in collisions and unnecessary retransmissions. Quantum entanglement is an excellent candidate to overcome the propagation delay of the RoF MAC protocol. A new quantum MAC protocol is proposed, named the Quantum Entanglement‐based MAC protocol (QE‐MAC), in which Quantum Teleportation is utilised to address the propagation delay. Four entanglement states are employed to represent the control packets of the classical MAC protocol, and data is transmitted over the classical channel. Instead of using control packets such as acknowledgement, request to send, and Clear to send, state transitions are employed. This approach avoids the delay and collision issues associated with control packets, resulting in a significant improvement in network performance. The delay, duty cycle (DC), and power consumption of the proposed QE‐MAC protocol are formulated and derived. The protocol is evaluated in terms of delay, DC, and power consumption, demonstrating superior performance compared to the classical RoF MAC protocol. In comparison to published works, our proposed approach has successfully reduced both delay and power consumption by 35%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research work introduces an Ensemble Adaptive Reinforcement Learning (EARL) approach for efficient load balancing in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs). Traditional methods often fail to adapt to the dynamic nature of MANETs, leading to congestion and inefficiency. EARL leverages multiple reinforcement learning agents, trained with Q-learning and Deep Q-Networks (DQN), to optimize routing decisions based on real-time network conditions. The ensemble mechanism combines the strengths of individual agents, enhancing adaptability and performance. Simulation results demonstrate that EARL significantly outperforms traditional methods like AODV and DSR, achieving higher packet delivery ratios, lower end-to-end delays, increased throughput, better energy efficiency, and reduced packet loss, thereby proving its effectiveness in dynamic network environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Flying Ad Hoc Networks (FANETs), the critical resource resides in an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) and the user nodes within the UAV's neighborhood defined by its transmission range can request for it. In Local Mutual Exclusion (LME), two nodes in the same neighborhood cannot execute the Critical Section (CS) simultaneously, but two non-neighboring nodes can be in the CS at the same time. This is a variation of traditional Mutual Exclusion (ME). The proposed Priority Aware - Request Collector Local Mutual Exclusion (PA-RCLME) algorithm ensures prioritized LME in such FANET structures. The proposed PA-RCLME algorithm is token-based and takes into account the priority of CS requests. It leverages a slow ageing technique to prevent starvation, to avoid a profusion of priority inversions, and to ensure the bounded waiting property of mutual exclusion algorithms. This algorithm introduces a neighborhood search technique that makes the token holder a secondary request collector, thereby reducing average request latency and increasing efficiency. The rapid movement of UAVs and other user nodes makes FANET topology highly dynamic and fault-prone. PA-RCLME algorithm handles it gracefully. Opportunistic Node Simulator (ONE) is used to simulate the algorithm and appropriate performance metrics have been recorded. A comparative analysis with the existing algorithm in the literature is also presented, and the proposed algorithm performs better. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quality of Service (QoS) is a crucial aspect of Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANET) that needs examination to demonstrate optimal performance. The scientific community is increasingly concerned with the challenge of developing an energy-aware clustering method for MANETs. This is owing to the fact that the battery-operated sensor devices that form the backbone of these wireless networks cannot be recharged. The selection of a cluster's leader is a difficult problem in MANET. Additionally, the research focuses on Optimal Route Selection (ORS) within the MANET context, acknowledging the significance of establishing efficient communication paths between cluster heads and member nodes. Through the integration of a reliability pair factor and node energy considerations, the proposed ORS algorithm generates optimal paths based on maximizing energy efficiency while minimizing the sum of hops between nodes. The study suggests a new algorithm based on the way waterwheel plants move and change their places as they explore and exploit new territory in the quest for food. The suggested method is named Binary Waterwheel Plant Algorithm (BWPA). In this method, a novel model is used to represent both the binary search space and the mapping from continuous to discrete spaces. Particularly, mathematical models of the fitness and cost functions used by the algorithm are constructed. Through the use of a reliability pair factor and node energy, the proposed research paper on Optimal Route Selection (ORS) generates the optimal path between the cluster head and member node and establishes the path based on the maximum energy and sum of hops among the nodes. By fusing the reactive power of differential evolution with the exhaustive search efficiency of the BWPA, the proposed method extends the life of networks. The recommended method increases node lifetime by compounding the dynamic capabilities of discrepancy evolution with the high effectiveness of search. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The OSI model used to be a common network model for years. In the case of ad hoc networks with dynamic topology and difficult radio communications conditions, gradual departure is happening from the classical kind of OSI network model with a clear delineation of layers (physical, channel, network, transport, application) to the cross-layer approach. The layers of the network model in ad hoc networks strongly influence each other. Thus, the cross-layer approach can improve the performance of an ad hoc network by jointly developing protocols using interaction and collaborative optimization of multiple layers. The existing cross-layer methods classification is too complicated because it is based on the whole manifold of network model layer combinations, regardless of their importance. In this work, we review ad hoc network cross-layer methods, propose a new useful classification of cross-layer methods, and show future research directions in the development of ad hoc network cross-layer methods. The proposed classification can help to simplify the goal-oriented cross-layer protocol development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ad hoc networks are a new perspective of wireless communication for versatile hosts. Security is a colossal worry for ad hoc networks, especially for those security-touchy applications. The huge highlights of ad hoc networks cause both difficulties and openings in accomplishing security objectives. One such aim is to consider the assaults from within the system by compromised nodes correspondingly as to consider harmful assaults propelled from outside the system. Designing an Intrusion Detection System (IDS) that suits the security needs and characteristics of ad hoc networks for viable and proficient performance against intrusions is one potential solution to vanquish vulnerabilities. This paper examines a genuine and hurtful attack called, "Malicious Packet Dropping Attack" in the network layer. To secure against this attack, a novel methodology utilizing game theory is proposed. The proposed system monitors the conduct of the neighbor nodes and conquers the demerits such as false positives present in traditional IDS, thereby providing secure correspondence between nodes that communicate with one another to course the traffic from source to destination. With the existence of malicious nodes, the proposed system has accomplished a 42% increase in the packet delivery ratio. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a mobile ad hoc network (MANET), all nodes are communicated with one another across wireless networks to create a temporary network without the support of centralised management. Due to dynamic topology in MANET, secure routing is a crucial issue. The existing secure routing protocol and their security concerns are analysed in this work. The suggested Swarm Intelligence‐based Secure Ad‐hoc On‐demand Distance Vector (SIS‐AODV) algorithm offers security by applying a secret key and hash mechanism to prevent the involvement of malicious nodes in routing operations. A secure routing system of MANET guards against internal and external network attacks. The proposed SIS‐AODV algorithm consists of two sections: the secret key value generated by applying Elliptical Curve Cryptography (ECC)‐based algorithm and the PRESENT algorithm to encrypt the data packets. Besides, authentication and non‐repudiation are applied using the H‐PRESENT 128 algorithm. The PRESENT algorithm and H‐PRESENT 128 hash function require less computational power. Centralised management is optional in this scheme, so overhead decreases. The second section of SIS‐AODV consists of Ant Colony Grey Wolf Optimization over the AODV algorithm to improve network performance while implementing a security algorithm over MANET. Analysis results show maximum performance with a packet delivery ratio of 98% and throughput of 85%. In addition, end‐to‐end delay is reduced by up to 25%, and routing overhead decreases by up to 20%. Keywords: AODV, Elliptical Curve, PRESENT, H‐PRESENT, Euclidean Algorithm, ACO, GWO, Blackhole attack. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Vehicular ad hoc networks consist of self-organizing nodes using multi-hop wireless links for communication without any infrastructure support. Traditionally, ad hoc routing protocols use the minimum hop count for their routing metric since a smaller number of transmissions is typically equivalent to a higher throughput, lower delay, and minimal power consumption. However, with the muti-rate capability of emerging radio interfaces, e.g., 802.11ax/be standards, the min-hop metric no longer results in high throughput. For instance, if the higher data rate links are selected for the route, it could result in a higher throughput even if the route takes more hop counts. In this paper, we propose a high throughput routing scheme, called MARV, which makes two key contributions. MARV searches for high throughput paths using an on-demand route searching algorithm so that the routing overhead is smaller compared to other multi-rate-aware routing schemes. MARV also searches for multiple paths to maintain both min-hop and high-throughput paths to select the adequate path depending on the data packet size. We conduct simulations to demonstrate that MARV outperforms not only min-hop path metrics but also previously proposed high-throughput metrics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the observed developments of novel communication modes and the establishment of next‐generation cellular networks, mobility modelling and ad hoc routing requirements have emerged. Flying ad hoc networks are key pivots in enabling technological leaps in the domain of on‐demand communications, especially in emergency scenarios; as such, resorting to application‐ and mobility‐aware routing is a promising enabler of this emerging set of use cases. This article investigates swarm mobility modelling, and applicable routing protocols, conducting comparative analysis that leads to the introduction of the new Anchored Self‐Similar 3D Gauss‐Markov Mobility Model (ASSGM‐3D), which incorporates a novel set of spatio‐temporal statistical metrics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Mobile ad hoc Networks (MANETs), the packet scheduling process is considered the major challenge because of error-prone connectivity among mobile nodes that introduces intolerable delay and insufficient throughput with high packet loss. In this paper, a Modified Firefly Optimization Algorithm improved Fuzzy Scheduler-based Packet Scheduling (MFPA-FSPS) Mechanism is proposed for sustaining Quality of Service (QoS) in the network. This MFPA-FSPS mechanism included a Fuzzy-based priority scheduler by inheriting the merits of the Sugeno Fuzzy inference system that potentially and adaptively estimated packets' priority for guaranteeing optimal network performance. It further used the modified Firefly Optimization Algorithm to optimize the rules utilized by the fuzzy inference engine to achieve the potential packet scheduling process. This adoption of a fuzzy inference engine used dynamic optimization that guaranteed excellent scheduling of the necessitated packets at an appropriate time with minimized waiting time. The statistical validation of the proposed MFPAFSPS conducted using a one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test confirmed its predominance over the benchmarked schemes used for investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Ad Hoc networks solves the problem of quickly establishing a temporary Ad Hoc network without the need for fixed facilities. However, problems such as network performance degradation, delay increase, and link interruption are endless. Aiming at the problem of shortening the survival time of Ad Hoc networks nodes, this paper proposes an improved AODV routing algorithm EC-MAODV (Energy Consumption-Modification AODV) based on energy consumption. EC-MAODV takes energy as the starting point, determines the time extension based on the residual energy of the current node, balance the power consumption of each node, and extends the networks lifetime. The effectiveness of EC-MAODV routing algorithm is proved by network simulator NS-3. The simulation results show that compared with the AODV routing protocol, the algorithm in this paper has more than 7% improvement and 19% increase in average delay and node lifetime. It can effectively prolong the life of the network, reduce the number of dead nodes, effectively solve the energy consumption problem of the wireless Ad Hoc network, and improve the overall performance of the network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) network specifies a novel type of Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) in which drones serve as nodes and facilitate the retransmission of messages to their final destinations. Aside from its military application, it has recently begun to seep into the civilian sector. Similar to MANET and vehicular ad hoc networks, Flying Ad hoc Networks (FANET) are a subset of ad hoc networks. An FANET is different because it is founded on UAVs. Due to the characteristics of this sort of network, which is defined by a highly changing topology in a 3D environment, we must employ an adjusted configuration method to ensure good routing performance. Therefore, to deal with this problem, a technique that responds to any change in topology by always finding the best route is required. In this work, we propose a new protocol based on the hybrid optimization of the 2-opt heuristic and Honey Badger Algorithm (HBA), called HB-AODV. In order to locate its prey, a badger must move slowly and continuously while using scent markers and mouse-digging skills to catch it. In other words, the most efficient routes in terms of the number of hops are identified. Several simulations were conducted via the 3D version of Network Simulator (NS-2) on different deployment strategies. In comparison to AODV, DSDV, and AntHocNet, the obtained results demonstrated the proposed scheme's good performance in terms of quality of service metrics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) are now key in today's new world. They are critically needed in many situations when it is crucial to form a network on the fly while not having the luxury of time or resources to configure devices, build infrastructure, or even have human interventions. Ad hoc networks have many applications. For instance, they can be used in battlefields, education, rescue missions, and many other applications. Such networks are characterized by high mobility, low resources of power, storage, and processing. They are infrastructure-less; this means that they don't use infrastructure equipment for communication. These networks rely instead on each other for routing and communication. MANETs use a hopping mechanism where each node in a network finds another node within its communication range and use it as a hop for delivering the message through another node and so on. In standard networks, there is dedicated equipment for specific functions such as routers, servers, firewalls, etc., while in ad hoc networks, every node performs multiple functions. For example, the routing function is performed by nodes. Hence, they are more vulnerable to attacks than standard networks. The main goal of this paper is to propose a solution for detecting black hole attacks using anomaly detection based on a support vector machine (SVM). This detection system aims at analyzing the traffic of the network and identifying anomalies by checking node behaviors. In the case of black hole attacks, the attacking nodes have some behavioral characteristics that are different from normal nodes. These characteristics can be effectively detected using our lightweight detection system. To experiment with the effectiveness of this solution, an OMNET++ simulator is used to generate traffic under a black hole attack. The traffic is then classified into malicious and non-malicious based on which the malicious node is identified. The results of the proposed solution showed very high accuracy in detecting black hole attacks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ad hoc networks are temporary networks, created mainly for applications that are infrastructure-less. Such networks and network nodes demand special characteristics like mobile nodes having dynamic topology, wireless medium, heterogeneous deployment environment, and reactive or proactive routing depending on the nature of the network which includes network parameters such as node placement, mobility model, number of participants in the network, patterns of mobility, etc. Due to these characteristics and the mobility of network nodes, the process of routing is quite challenging in the ad hoc environment, especially when the node mobility is high. Bio-inspired routing can be an effective solution to meet all the design requirements and deal with the issues of tactical ad hoc networks. Different types of nature-inspired routing mechanisms are possible to use for tactical networks. This paper proposes the design of a novel Ant Colony Optimization-based routing strategy for ad hoc networks. Ant-based algorithms are dynamic and have adaptive behavior. Hence, they are competent for routing in ad hoc networks. Our proposed routing scheme is evaluated based on the network's performance by varying different parameters. The performance of our proposed ACO-based routing approach is also compared to some existing ad hoc routing mechanisms. Different metrics in different deployment scenarios that can affect the efficiency of our proposed protocol are taken into consideration to evaluate the performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Positions of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are typically obtained using the global positioning system (GPS). However, in GPS-denied or GPS-degraded environments, ad hoc networks with flying sensor nodes are used for UAV localization. In this study, we propose a novel three-dimensional (3D) localization algorithm for UAVs in flying ad hoc sensor networks. Interacting multiple model probability data association and finite impulse response filters are integrated in our hybrid localization algorithm. The non-line-of-sight condition can be overcome using the proposed algorithm, which is demonstrated through 3D localization simulations based on flying ad hoc networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various routing protocols have been proposed for ad hoc networks such as the Internet of Things (IoT). Most of the routing protocols introduced for IoT are specific to applications and networks. In the current literature, it is essential to configure all the network nodes with a single proposed protocol. Moreover, it is also possible for a single IoT network to consist of different kinds of nodes. Two or more IoT networks can also be connected to create a bigger heterogeneous network. Such networks may need various routing protocols with some gateway nodes installed. The role of gateway nodes should not be limited to the interconnection of different nodes. In this paper, a multi-mode hybrid routing mechanism is proposed that can be installed on all or a limited number of nodes in a heterogenous IoT network. The nodes configured with the proposed protocols are termed smart nodes. These nodes can be used to connect multiple IoT networks into one. Furthermore, a game-theory-based model is proposed that is used for intercommunication among the smart nodes to gain optimal efficiency. Various performance matrices are assessed under different network scenarios. The simulation results show that the proposed mechanism outperforms in broader heterogeneous IoT networks with diverse nodes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Medium access control (MAC) protocols in ad hoc networks have evolved from single-channel independent transmission mechanisms to multi-channel concurrent mechanisms to efficiently manage the demands placed on modern networks. The primary aim of this study is to compare the performance of popular multi-channel MAC (MMAC) protocols under saturated network traffic conditions and propose improvements to the protocols under these conditions. A novel, dynamically adaptive MMAC protocol was devised to take advantage of the performance capabilities of the evaluated protocols in changing wireless ad hoc network conditions. A simulation of the familiar MAC protocols was developed based on a validated simulation of the IEEE 802.11 standard. Further, the behaviors and performances of these protocols are compared against the proposed MMAC protocols with a varying number of ad hoc stations and concurrent wireless channels in terms of throughput, Jain's fairness index, and channel access delay. The results show that the proposed MMAC protocol, labeled E-SA-MMAC, outperforms the existing protocols in throughput by up to 11.9% under a constrained number of channels and in channel access delays by up to 18.3%. It can be asserted from these observations that the proposed approach provides performance benefits against its peers under saturated traffic conditions and other factors, such as the number of available wireless channels, and is suitable for dynamic ad hoc network deployments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ad Hoc networks have been widely used in emergency communication tasks. For dynamic characteristics of Ad Hoc networks, problems of node energy limited and unbalanced energy consumption during deployment, we propose a strategy based on game theory and deep reinforcement learning (GDR) to improve the balance of network capabilities and enhance the autonomy of the network topology. The model uses game theory to generate an adaptive topology, adjusts its power according to the average life of the node, helps the node with the shortest life to decrease the power, and prolongs the survival time of the entire network. When the state of the node changes, reinforcement learning is used to automatically generate routing policies to improve the average end-to-end latency of the network. Experiments show that, under the condition of ensuring connectivity, GDR has smaller residual energy variance, longer network lifetime, and lower network delay. The delay of the GDR model is 10.5% higher than that of existing methods on average. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs) are intended to work without a fixed framework and provide dependable interchanges to ground vehicles, boats, airplanes, or people and structure a self-mending process that will empower persistent correspondences in any event, when at least one of its nodes are debilitated or briefly expelled from the system. Notwithstanding, MANETs demonstrate themselves to be progressively harder to create for enormous systems with hundreds or thousands more nodes than initially envisioned. In our proposed technique, the node switches its communication mode depending on the connectivity of the adjacent nodes. The transmission power of each node will be calculated with the help of two major scenarios i.e., tree scenario and zone scenario. The autonomous clustering of the nodes among the tree and the zone scenario will be channelized by a comparison of the transmission power (residual energy) among the nodes. The inter and the intra communication of the node is also discussed in the paper. The result will be carried out by the simulation work in various perspectives, such as checking the percentage level of malicious nodes, traffic density, transmission power, and the longevity of nodes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The main aim of this paper is to address the problem of redundant broadcast packets using the extension of rough set concept. In general, a rough set is a mathematical tool for dealing with issues of uncertainty. In MANET, mobile nodes are moving from one place to another place in a simulation environment; hence, it creates uncertainty issues. Due to the fast mobility of mobile nodes, network metrics such as bandwidth and hop count vary. The findings were useful in identifying and improving the network's performance. The proposed NRS‐based route selection approach has been compared with conventional techniques such as rough set, covering rough set (CRS). The reduced control packets are obtained using pruning concept based on selection of one‐hop and two‐hop nodes. Eventually, the proposed approach proved that it attains a higher throughput (85%), reducing the route request packets (3406) and delay of data transmission (0.02274 s). Also, two well‐known ad hoc routing protocols were used such as Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) and Ad Hoc On‐Demand Distance Vector (AODV) protocols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vehicular ad hoc network (VANET) is a specialized form of wireless network that is solely intended for collaboration between vehicles. Several studies have shown that standard routing protocols cannot be implemented in VANETs because of their unique characteristics such as their significant count of vehicles on the network and the rapid evolution of the network's design. Because VANET communication links are broken very frequently, it is necessary to address the routing consistency of these highly dynamic networks. The transmission of VANET data may result in a substantial amount of overhead in the routing process; thus, it is vital to address the issue of overhead to enhance the overall network performance. The proposed protocol named compacted area with effective links (CAEL) is designed to focus on decreasing overhead to achieve an enhancement in PDR performance inside the network. The communication between selected nodes that have been judged to be dependable in terms of geographical location and appropriate existing links between vehicles is focused on achieving this goal. With the inclusion of the reliability factor, it is possible to complete the important step of removing extraneous nodes, with the selection of the trustworthy nodes being made based on the link expiration time during the whole routing procedure. When compared to our previously published protocols, i.e., Dynamic Trilateral Enrollment (DyTE) and Reliable Group of Vehicles (RGoV), the results of the simulations demonstrate that CAEL has achieved an overall improvement in the performance of the network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An efficient and reliable route is the backbone of a Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET). nodes can move around freely, due to the dynamic nature of MANETs, and there is no fixed topology. Thus, route selection becomes a very critical issue, as many factors affect the communication between mobile nodes. Limited battery life and moving nodes lead to frequent route changes, and increase in hops and delays cause rapid battery consumption. Mobility is a critical factor that affects the communication between nodes of a wireless ad hoc network. Conventional algorithms consider hop count as the only parameter during selection of a route from source to destination and other significant QoS parameters like battery, mobility, end-to-end delay are ignored. As a consequence, these approaches do not attain the desired packet delivery ratio levels needed for a highly dynamic network. This paper proposes a QoS aware AHP based Cognitive Route selection in MANETs (QACRM). It is an Analytic Hierarchy Process-Simple Additive Weighing (AHP-SAW) based cognitive approach for optimal route selection. In this work, routes are ranked based on hop count, battery, mobility, and end-to-end delay. The importance of QoS parameters is decided based on human expert judgement provided to the system. The route which is ranked highest is selected for transmission. This approach identifies reliable and optimal routes for communication between the nodes. Results attest that the proposed technique (QACRM) performs better when compared with AODV and other existing methods for packet delivery ratio, consumption of energy, size of network, and changing least number of routes in a dynamic environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless Ad Hoc Networks (WANETs) are predicted to be prevalent networks in coming future because of their infrastructure-less characteristics that result in self-organization, self-healing, and self-configuration of such networks. Routing means the process of selecting a path along which data can be transferred from source to destination that plays a significant role in the performance of ad hoc networks. There are many routing protocols developed for wireless ad hoc networks. One of such protocols, developed by C. E. Perkins, is Ad Hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol, which is a reactive routing protocol, AODV is used to establish route(s) between source node(s) and destination node(s) as and when routes are required. Performance of AODV routing protocol depends heavily on choice of values of a set of predefined attributes. One of such attributes of AODV is Node Traversal Time (NTT) which is supposed to play significant role in establishing route(s) between source node(s) and destination node(s). In this paper, we have investigated the performance of AODV in a linear wireless ad hoc network using different values of NTT using as well as without using Hello messages. The performance of the network has been measured using several metrics like Route Error Overhead, Routing Overhead, Normalized Routing Load, Average Hop Count, Total Number of Received Data Packets, Packet Delivery Ratio, Average End-to-End Delay and Throughput. It is observed that choice of value of NTT has a significant effect on establishment of route(s) between source node(s) and destination node(s) that eventually affects the performance of the linear wireless ad hoc network under consideration. The insights gained through this work could be useful in analysis of more realistic and complex networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For many wireless ad-hoc network (WANET) applications, including wireless sensor, robotic, and flying ad-hoc networks, area coverage is a major challenge. This challenge, which may include the number of required nodes, cumulative energy consumption, or total distance travelled, involves covering the largest possible area with the least cost. Whatever the scenario and cost functions, efficiently deploying the nodes throughout their entire missions is an important factor. For larger networks, this can best be performed using proper topology formations that are essentially designated geometric graph patterns. As a network topology formation and node deployment strategy, this study presents a unique tree-formed geometric graph pattern. With any given number of nodes, it guarantees the maximum possible combined area coverage. Considering its graph theory and Euclidean characteristics, the pattern is then described as both algebraic and algorithmic relations. The formation is remarkably scalable because it may include an unlimited number of nodes while ensuring connectivity in a tree topology. In addition to presenting a breakdown of multiple features and attributes, including symmetry and fractality, we will make a comparative analysis with six known regular lattices and a line formation. Our analyses then show that MAX-Tree covers up to twice as much area compared to all other regular lattices of the same node cardinalities while being more robust and reliable than a line formation. MAX-Tree can be extremely beneficial for drone networks, smart industry and agriculture applications, ocean-bed monitoring systems, and many other WANET scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Edge computing has become a major trend in networking research. The rapid growth in the number of data analytics based mobile applications has resulted in an exponential rise in processing demand. One way to cope with this increased processing demand is to use edge networks (EN), which is a wireless ad-hoc network of mobile cloudlets, vehicular cloudlets, dedicated edge devices, and cloud platforms. Typically these devices have different owners and service providers. In this work, we propose a distributed incentive mechanism for an EN, which does not require a trusted third party (TTP). We consider a multi hop EN where a user offloads tasks to neighboring nodes, which may further offload them to their neighbours or the cloud. Our scheme is computationally efficient and helps each node decide on the incentives and workload distribution. We conducted simulations to study the performance of our scheme in different scenarios, including those of untruthful behavior by some nodes. Results show the benefit of using multi hop offloading and that our scheme discourages the untruthful behavior of nodes by assigning them lesser workload. We also propose a partially distributed incentive mechanism and compared its performance to our fully distributed scheme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we derive closed-form expressions for significant statistical properties of the link signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and the separation distance in mobile ad hoc networks subject to Ornstein-Uhlenbeck (OU) mobility and Rayleigh fading. In these systems, the SNR is a critical parameter as it directly influences link performance. In the absence of signal fading, the distribution of the link SNR depends exclusively on the squared distance between nodes, which is governed by the mobility model. In our analysis, nodes move randomly according to an Ornstein-Uhlenbeck process, using one tuning parameter to control the temporal dependency in the mobility pattern. We derive a complete statistical description of the squared distance and show that it forms a stationary Markov process. Then, we compute closed-form expressions for the probability density function (pdf), the cumulative distribution function (cdf), the bivariate pdf, and the bivariate cdf of the link SNR. Next, we introduce small-scale fading, modeled by a Rayleigh random variable, and evaluate the pdf of the link SNR for rational path loss exponents. The validity of our theoretical analysis is verified by extensive simulation studies. The results presented in this work can be used to quantify link uncertainty and evaluate stability in mobile ad hoc wireless systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a novel scalable reinforcement learning approach for simultaneous routing and spectrum access in wireless ad-hoc networks. In most previous works on reinforcement learning for network optimization, the network topology is assumed to be fixed, and a different agent is trained for each transmission node—this limits scalability and generalizability. Further, routing and spectrum access are typically treated as separate tasks. Moreover, the optimization objective is usually a cumulative metric along the route, e.g., number of hops or delay. In this paper, we account for the physical-layer signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) in a wireless network and further show that bottleneck objective such as the minimum SINR along the route can also be optimized effectively using reinforcement learning. Specifically, we propose a scalable approach in which a single agent is associated with each flow and makes routing and spectrum access decisions as it moves along the frontier nodes. The agent is trained according to the physical-layer characteristics of the environment using a novel rewarding scheme based on the Monte Carlo estimation of the future bottleneck SINR. It learns to avoid interference by intelligently making joint routing and spectrum allocation decisions based on the geographical location information of the neighbouring nodes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The object of research is the military radio communication system. Effective operation of routing protocols is possible only if there is reliable information about the network topology for network nodes, given that the mobility of individual nodes is insignificant in special purpose wireless networks. Because nodes in the network demonstrate the mobility property of the node groups. This paper solves the problem of the analysis (decomposition) of methods of protocols efficiency increase of dynamic routing in telecommunication networks with a possibility to self-organization. In the course of the research, the authors used the main provisions of the queuing theory, the theory of automation, the theory of complex technical systems and general scientific methods of cognition, namely analysis and synthesis. This research analyzes various methods to increase the efficiency of dynamic routing protocols. Energy efficiency methods focus on three main components in energy management: battery management, transmission energy management and system energy management methods. Reliable multicast has become indispensable for the successful deployment of special purpose wireless networks, such as in tactical military operations and emergency operations. The results of the research will be useful in: – development of new routing algorithms; – substantiation of recommendations for improving the efficiency of the route selection process in networks with the possibility of self-organization; – analysis of the electronic situation during hostilities (operations); – while creating promising technologies to increase the efficiency of mobile radio networks. Areas of further research will focus on the development of a methodology for the operational management of interference protection of intelligent military radio communication systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Routing protocols are responsible for providing reliable communication between the source and destination nodes. The performance of these protocols in the ad hoc network family is influenced by several factors such as mobility model, traffic load, transmission range, and the number of mobile nodes which represents a great issue. Several simulation studies have explored routing protocol with performance parameters, but few relate to various protocols concerning routing and quality of service (QoS) metrics. This paper presents a simulation-based comparison of proactive, reactive, and multipath routing protocols in mobile adhoc networks (MANETs). Specifically, the performance of AODV, DSDV, and AOMDV protocols are evaluated and analyzed in the presence of varying the number of mobile nodes, pause time, and traffic connection numbers. Moreover, Routing and QoS performance metrics such as normalized routing load, routing packet, packet delivery ratio, packet drop, end-to-end delay, and throughput are measured to conduct a performance comparison between three routing protocols. Simulation results indicate that AODV outperforms the DSDV and AOMDV protocols in most of the metrics. AOMDV is better than DSDV in terms of end-to-end delay. DSDV provides lower throughput performance results. Network topology parameters have a slight impact on AODV performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this treatise, we present a throughput assessment of a small area ad-hoc networks comprising of non-linear internet of thing (IoT) energy-harvesting device (ED) around one relay node (RN) amidst randomly located primary users (PUs) and hardware impairments. The relay is connected to an access point (AP), which is directly connected to the internet. Hardware impairment exists between EDs and the RN and between RN and AP as well. Multiple input multiple output (MIMO) link between the relay and the AP has been considered to boost throughput. Such a small area ad-hoc network comprising of EDs, RN and AP is considered to operate as an underlay network, where EDs harvest energy from various PUs and transmit data using the same frequency band used by PUs. Such an ad-hoc network is useful in small scale commercial establishment. The key contribution of this work is that we have analytically evaluated the average throughput of an ED. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are widely used in our modern society and their development is rapidly accelerating. Flying Ad Hoc Networks (FANETs) have opened a new window of opportunity to create new value-added services. However, the characteristics that make FANETs unique, such as node mobility, node distance, energy constraints, etc., imply that several guidelines need to be considered for their successful deployment. Although numerous routing protocols have been proposed for FANETs, due to the wide range of applications in which FANETs can be applied, not all routing protocols can be used. Due to this challenge, after breaking down and classifying the different types of existing routing protocols for FANET, this paper analyzes and compares the performance of several routing protocols (Babel, BATMAN-ADV, and OLSR) in terms of throughput and packet loss in a real deployment composed of several UAV nodes using 2.4 and 5 GHz WiFi networks. The results show that Babel achieves better performance in the studied metrics than OLSR and BATMAN-ADV, while BATMAN-ADV delivers significantly lower performance. This experimental study confirms the importance of choosing the proper routing protocol for FANETs and their performance evaluation, something that will be extremely important in a few years when this type of network will be common in our day-to-day life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Immediately after the occurrence of a natural disaster, communication infrastructures used in daily life become temporarily unavailable. Under such a situation, intermittently connected mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) play an important role in providing post-disaster networking. While previous studies on such networks have mainly focused on one-to-one messaging applications, the importance of monitoring applications has become increasingly important in recent years. For monitoring applications, the key performance measure is given by the freshness of the information, rather than the traditional delay characteristics. In this paper, we present a mathematical analysis of the age of information (AoI) for intermittently connected MANETs, which captures the information freshness of monitoring applications. We further investigate basic principles in the network design based on the analytical results obtained. In particular, we discuss the AoI-energy tradeoff from different perspectives of source and relay nodes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using directional antennas in wireless Ad hoc networks has many superiorities, including reducing interference, extending transmission range, and increasing space division multiplexing. However, directional transmission introduces two problems: deafness and directional hidden terminals problems. We observe that these problems result in saturation throughput disparity among the competing flows in directional CSMA/CA based Ad hoc networks and bring challenges for modeling the saturation throughput of the flows. In this article, we concentrate on how to model and analyze the saturation throughput disparity of different flows in directional CSMA/CA based Ad hoc networks. We first divide the collisions occurring in the transmission process into directional instantaneous collisions and directional persistent collisions. Then we propose a four-dimensional Markov chain to analyze the transmission state for a specific node. Our model has three different kinds of processes, namely back-off process, transmission process and freezing process. Each process contains a certain amount of continuous time slots which is defined as the basic time unit of the directional CSMA/CA protocols and the time length of each slot is fixed. We characterize the collision probabilities of the node by the one-step transition probability matrix in our Markov chain model. Accordingly, we can finally deduce the saturation throughput for each directional data stream and evaluate saturation throughput disparity for a given network topology. Finally, we verify the accuracy of our model by comparing the deviation of analytical results and simulation results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we have focused on the implementation of a mechanism for detecting malicious nodes in the MP-OLSR routing protocol through the integration of trust reasoning. The study carried out has enabled the emergence of trust rules between nodes based on local information and messages exchanged during the neighborhood discovery process and network topology to make the MP-OLSRV2 protocol more trusted. The correlation between the received control messages allows nodes to validate the neighborhood at one hop and two hops. When the information received is consistent with the MP-OLSRV2 protocol specifications, this reasoning allows the creation of a trust relationship. Otherwise, it allows nodes to be wary of the sources of its inconsistencies. When an attack is detected, the countermeasure proposed allows the attacking node to be isolated from the network and to guarantee its non-participation in the routing mechanism by implementing an intrusion detection system in each node of MANET. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, the need for high security with reliability in the wireless network has tremendously been increased. To provide high security in reliable networks, mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) play a top role, like open network boundary, distributed network, and fast and quick implementation. By expanding the technology, the MANET faces a number of security challenges due to self-configuration and maintenance capabilities. Besides, traditional security solutions for wired networks are ineffective and inefficient because of the nature of highly dynamic and resource-constrained MANETs. In this paper, the researchers focus on improving reliable data transmission with high security in the MANET using an optimization technique. In the proposed MANET system, the nodes are clustered by utilizing an energy-efficient routing protocol. Then, the modified discrete particle swarm optimization is used to select the optimal cluster head. A secured routing protocol and a signcryption model can be used to improve the transmission security of the reliable MANET. The signcryption algorithm encrypts the digital signature, which can enhance the overall efficiency and confidentiality. The security-based analysis is performed on the basis of packet delivery ratio, energy consumption, network lifetime, and throughput. Finally, the result demonstrates that the MANET with optimization techniques achieves a high transmission rate and improves the reliable data security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Routing selection and supporting Quality of Service (QoS) are fundamental problems in Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET). Many different protocols have been proposed in the literature and some performance simulations are made to address this challenging task. This paper discusses the performance evaluation and comparison of two typical routing protocols; Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) and Destination-Sequenced Distance- Vector (DSDV) based on measuring the power consumption in network with varing of the QoS parameters. In this paper, we have studied and analyzed the impact of variations in QoS parameter combined with the choice of routing protocol, on network performance. The network performance is measured in terms of average throughput, packet delivery ratio (PDR), average jitter and energy consumption. The simulations are carried out in NS-3. The simulation results show that DSDV and AODV routing protocols are less energy efficient. The main aim of this paper is to highlight the directions for the future design of routing protocol which would be better than the existing ones in terms of energy utilization and delivery ratio. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mobile ad-hoc cloud can exploit the computing resources (e.g., smartphones, vehicles, and unmanned systems) scattered in the mobile environment to form a self-organized ad-hoc local resource pool for providing opportunistic computing services. However, the highly dynamic and distributed characteristics of the mobile ad-hoc network environment bring great challenges in privacy and security in such opportunistic resource sharing. In this article, we first discuss the attractive features of blockchain for providing such resource sharing services in the mobile ad-hoc network environment in a secure and trustful way and then discuss the problems caused when using existing consensus protocols in such an environment. We accordingly devise a blockchain based trustful mobile ad-hoc cloud architecture, AdChain cloud. We describe the functions at different layers in this architecture, including the network layer, blockchain layer, and smart contract layer. To adapt to the high dynamics of the mobile ad-hoc network environment, we design a stability-aware consensus protocol at the blockchain layer. Simulation results show that our solution can achieve improved performance as compared with existing work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ad hoc network is an emerging wireless communication technology. Recently, the reliability of ad hoc networks has attracted increasing attention in the literature. In this paper, the reliability of such networks is analyzed by incorporating the impacts of node failures and interference, because node failures usually obstruct the achievement of the intended function of a network, and interference is a key factor that degenerates the communication quality. We consider a general case that an ad hoc network is functional if at least k arbitrary nodes are operational and connected. Accordingly, two novel reliability indices, the generalized k-terminal reliability and the average generalized k-terminal reliability, are proposed, and their calculation methods are provided based on the Laplace transformation technique and the graph theory. For optimizing the design of an ad hoc network, a multiobjective optimization problem is investigated to maximize the reliability level and minimize the cost. The optimization problem is handled by the weighted sum method, and the most suitable solution is selected by the fuzzy satisfying approach. Finally, a numerical example is given to demonstrate the application of the proposed methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Communication problems in ad hoc wireless networks have been already widely studied under the SINR model, but a vast majority of results concern networks with constraints on connectivity, so called strongly-connected networks. In such networks, connectivity is defined based on highly reliable links, that is, where both ends are located far closer from their transmission boundaries. What happens if the network is not strongly-connected, e.g., it contains some long but still viable "shortcut links" connecting transmission boundaries? It is known that even a single broadcast in such ad hoc weakly-connected networks with uniform transmission powers requires Ω (n) communication rounds, where n is the number of nodes in the network. The best up-to-date (randomized) distributed algorithm, designed by Daum et al. [1] , accomplishes broadcast task in O (n log 2 ⁡ n) communication rounds with high probability. In this work, inspired by the work on broadcasting, we show a novel deterministic distributed implementation of token traversal — a fundamental tool in distributed systems — in the SINR model with uniform transmission powers and no restriction on connectivity. We show that it is efficient even in a very harsh model of weakly-connected networks without GPS, carrier sensing and other helping features. We apply this method to span a traversal tree and accomplish broadcast in O (n log ⁡ N) communication rounds, deterministically, provided nodes are equipped with unique IDs in the range [ 1 , N ] for some integer N ≥ n. This result implies an O (n log ⁡ n) -round randomized solution that does not require IDs, which improves the result from [1]. The lower bound Ω (n log ⁡ N) for deterministic algorithms proved in our work shows that our result is tight without randomization. Our implementation of token traversal routine, efficient in terms of time and memory, is based on a novel implicit algorithmic carrier sensing method and a new type of selectors, which might be of independent interest and applicable to other communication tasks in distributed ad hoc setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, with the rapid development of the Internet and wireless communication technology, wireless Ad hoc networks have received more attention. Due to the limited transmission range and energy of nodes in Ad hoc networks, it is important to establish a reliable and energy-balanced transmission path in Ad hoc networks. This paper proposes an energy-based dynamic routing protocol based on the existing AODV routing protocol, which has the following two aspects of improvement: (1) In the route discovery process, a node selects a suitable route from the minimum energy consumption route and the energy-balanced route designed in this paper according to a "Mark" bit that representing remaining energy of a node. (2) Based on (1), a route interruption update strategy was proposed to restart the route discovery process when node energy was used excessively. Simulation results demonstrate that compared with AODV and other existing routing protocols, proposed algorithm can reduce network energy consumption and balance node energy, thus extending the network lifetime. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol using directional antennas in wireless ad-hoc networks, which achieves frame-collision reduction, freezing-state duration reduction, and deafness-problem mitigation simultaneously. The idea of the proposed protocol is that Pulse/Tone exchange is applied to the Opportunistic Directional MAC protocol (OPDMAC). By applying the Pulse/Tone exchange prior to Request to Send/Clear to Send (RTS/CTS) handshake, RTS-to-RTS frame collisions are reduced dramatically. Additionally, RTS-to-DATA frame collisions in the OPDMAC are changed to Pulse signal-to-DATA frame overlaps in the proposed protocol. This change makes the DATA-frame transmissions in success because the Pulse signal-to-DATA frame overlaps are regarded as a deafness problem. On that basis, the deafness-problem mitigation can be obtained in the proposed protocol by adaptive transmission-direction switching, which follows the OPDMAC technique. The freezing-state durations can be also reduced by the transmission-direction switching. As a result, the proposed protocol provides high network throughput compared with conventional protocols. Simulation results show the validity and effectiveness of the proposed protocol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hybrid Mobile ad hoc network (H-MANET) is a network in which MANET is connected to the Internet using some special nodes called Internet Gateways (IGs). Previous work in this field considered the infinite buffer scenario and therefore buffer overflow would never occur. But in realistic MANET, the buffer size of each node is strictly bounded that incurs packet loss and intensifies delay. In this paper, a mathematical model has been proposed for modeling of multipath delay analysis for IG selection in H-MANET. The proposed work is used to estimate end to end delay of each individual path amongst Source Node (SN) and IGs. The M/M/m/R network model has been employed for modeling the network in which packets arrive in Poisson distribution in a bounded queue with finite buffer capacity. Burke theorem has been used to calculate queuing delay of each individual path as well as the complete path from the SN to an IG. Furthermore, best IG is selected for data transmission based on delay analysis of multiple paths. The Opnet modeler 18.0 has been used to perform the simulation work. The numerical results represent the effectiveness of proposed model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the number of mobile devices that natively support ad hoc communication protocols increase, large ad hoc networks can be created not only to facilitate communication among the mobile devices, but also to assist devices that are executing computationally intensive applications. Prior work has developed computation offloading systems for mobile devices, but this work has focused exclusively on offloading to single hop neighbors, due in part to the practical challenges of setting up multi-hop networks using existing ad hoc communication protocols. However, limiting the offloading of computation to one-hop neighbors inherently restricts the number of devices that can participate in the distributed computation. By presenting a heuristic, aimed at avoiding partitioning the network, as well as an iterative task assignment algorithm that can optimize the assignment of computational tasks to devices in a multi-hop cooperative network, we are able to evaluate the effect of computational offloading in multi-hop networks. Experimental results, obtained from an implementation on Android devices, are integrated with an analytical model that enables the evaluation of system performance under a variety of conditions. These experimental and analytic results demonstrate the benefit of enabling computation offloading to all devices in a multi-hop cooperative network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to instability of links in the network, the model of delay tolerant networks (DTNs) is often adopted in many emerging mobile applications. To organizations and individuals using these mobile applications, security and privacy are considered to be two of the most significant concerns. This research seeks to address anonymous communications in DTNs. While many different anonymous routing protocols have been proposed for ad hoc networks, to the best of our knowledge, only variants of onion-based routing have been tailored for DTNs. Since each type of anonymous routing protocol has its pros and cons, there is no single anonymous routing protocol for DTNs that can adapt to the different levels of security requirements. In this paper, we first design a set of anonymous routing protocols for DTNs, called anonymous Epidemic and zone-based anonymous routing, based on the original anonymous routing protocols for ad hoc networks. Then, we propose a framework of anonymous routing (FAR) for DTNs, which subsumes all the aforementioned protocols. By tuning its parameters, the proposed FAR is able to outperform onion-based, anonymous Epidemic, and zone-based routing. In addition, numerical analyses for the traceable rate, node anonymity, and path anonymity models are built. Extensive simulations using randomly generated graphs as well as real traces demonstrate that the proposed framework for DTNs successfully achieves its design goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]