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The relation between nuclear star clusters (NSCs) and the growth of the central supermassive black holes (SMBHs), as well as their connection to the properties of the host galaxies, is crucial for understanding the evolution of galaxies. Recent observations have revealed that about 10 per cent of nucleated galaxies host hybrid nuclei, consisting of both NSCs and accreting SMBHs that power active galactic nuclei (AGNs). Motivated by the potential of the recently published multiwavelength data sets from LeMMINGs survey, here we present the most thorough investigation to date of the incidence of hybrid nuclei in a large sample of 100 nearby nucleated galaxies (10 E, 25 S0, 63 S, and 2 Irr), covering a wide range in stellar mass (⁠|$M_{*,\rm gal} \sim 10^{8.7}-10^{12}~\rm M_{\odot }$|⁠). We identify the nuclei and derive their properties by performing detailed 1D and 2D multicomponent decompositions of the optical and near-infrared HST stellar light distributions of the galaxies using Sérsic and core-Sérsic models. Our AGN diagnostics are based on homogeneously derived nuclear 1.5 GHz e -MERLIN radio, Chandra X-ray (0.3–10 keV), and optical emission-line data. We determine the nucleation fraction (⁠|$f_{\rm nuc}$|⁠) as the relative incidence of nuclei across the LeMMINGs HST sample and find |$f_{\rm nuc} =~$| 100/149 (= 67 |$\pm$| 7 per cent), confirming previous work, with a peak value of |$49/56~(= 88 \pm 13$|  per cent) at bulge masses |$M_{*,\rm bulge}\sim 10^{9.4}- 10^{10.8}~ \rm M_{\odot }$|⁠. We identify 30 nucleated LeMMINGs galaxies that are optically active, radio-detected, and X-ray luminous (⁠|$L_\textnormal {X} \gt 10^{39}$| erg s |$^{-1}$|⁠). This indicates that our nucleated sample has a lower limit |$\sim$| 30 per cent occupancy of hybrid nuclei, which is a function of |$M_{*,\rm bulge}$| and |$M_{*,\rm gal}$|⁠. We find that hybrid nuclei have a number density of |$(1.5 \pm 0.4)\times 10^{-5}$|  Mpc |$^{-3}$|⁠ , are more common at |$M_{*,\rm gal}\sim 10^{10.6}- 10^{11.8}~\rm M_{\odot }$| and occur, at least, three times more frequently than previously reported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deep radio surveys of extragalactic legacy fields trace a large range of spatial and brightness temperature sensitivity scales, and therefore have differing biases to radio-emitting physical components within galaxies. This is particularly true of radio surveys performed at |$\lesssim 1 \ \mathrm{arcsec}$| angular resolutions, and so robust comparisons are necessary to better understand the biases present in each survey. We present a multiresolution and multiwavelength analysis of the sources detected in a new Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) survey of the Cosmic Assembly Near-IR Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey-North field. For the 24 VLBA-selected sources described in Paper I, we augment the VLBA data with EVN data, and ∼0.1–1 arcsec angular resolution data provided by Very Large Array (VLA) and enhanced-Multi Element Remotely Linked Interferometry Network. This sample includes new active galactic nuclei (AGN) detected in this field, thanks to a new source extraction technique that adopts priors from ancillary multiwavelength data. The high brightness temperatures of these sources (TB ≳ 106 K) confirm AGN cores, that would often be missed or ambiguous in lower-resolution radio data of the same sources. Furthermore, only 15 sources are identified as 'radiative' AGN based on available X-ray and infrared constraints. By combining VLA and VLBA measurements, we find evidence that the majority of the extended radio emission is also AGN dominated, with only three sources with evidence for extended potentially star formation-dominated radio emission. We demonstrate the importance of wide-field multiresolution (arcsecond–milliarcsecond) coverage of the faint radio source population, for a complete picture of the multiscale processes within these galaxies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

All 280 of the statistically complete Palomar sample of nearby (<120 Mpc) galaxies δ > 20° have been observed at 1.5 GHz as part of the LeMMINGs e -MERLIN legacy survey. Here, we present Chandra X-ray observations of the nuclei of 213 of these galaxies, including a statistically complete sub-set of 113 galaxies in the declination range 40° <δ < 65°. We observed galaxies of all optical spectral types, including 'active' galaxies [e.g. low-ionization nuclear emission line regions (LINERs) and Seyferts] and 'inactive' galaxies like |${\rm H\, \small {II}}$| galaxies and absorption line galaxies (ALG). The X-ray flux limit of our survey is 1.65 × 10−14 erg s−1 cm−2 (0.3−10 keV). We detect X-ray emission coincident within 2 arcsec of the nucleus in 150/213 galaxies, including 13/14 Seyferts, 68/77 LINERs, 13/22 ALGs and 56/100 |${\rm H\, \small {II}}$| galaxies, but cannot completely rule out contamination from non-AGN processes in sources with nuclear luminosities |$\lesssim 10^{39}$|  erg s−1. We construct an X-ray Luminosity function (XLF) and find that the local galaxy XLF, when including all active galactic nucleus (AGN) types, can be represented as a single power law of slope −0.54 ± 0.06. The Eddington ratio of the Seyferts is usually 2−4 decades higher than that of the LINERs, ALGs, and |${\rm H\, \small {II}}$| galaxies, which are mostly detected with Eddington ratios |$\lesssim 10^{-3}$|⁠. Using [ |${\rm O\, \small {III}}$| ] line measurements and black hole masses from the literature, we show that LINERs, |${\rm H\, \small {II}}$| galaxies and ALGs follow similar correlations to low luminosities, suggesting that some 'inactive' galaxies may harbour AGN. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present an overview and description of the e -MERGE Survey (e -MERLIN Galaxy Evolution Survey) Data Release 1 (DR1), a large program of high-resolution 1.5-GHz radio observations of the GOODS-N field comprising ∼140 h of observations with enhanced-Multi-Element Remotely Linked Interferometer Network (e -MERLIN) and ∼40 h with the Very Large Array (VLA). We combine the long baselines of e -MERLIN (providing high angular resolution) with the relatively closely packed antennas of the VLA (providing excellent surface brightness sensitivity) to produce a deep 1.5-GHz radio survey with the sensitivity (⁠|${\sim}1.5\, \mu$|  Jy beam−1), angular resolution (0.2–0.7 arcsec) and field-of-view (∼15 × 15 arcmin2) to detect and spatially resolve star-forming galaxies and active galactic nucleus (AGN) at |$z$| ≳ 1. The goal of e -MERGE is to provide new constraints on the deep, sub-arcsecond radio sky which will be surveyed by SKA1-mid. In this initial publication, we discuss our data analysis techniques, including steps taken to model in-beam source variability over an ∼20-yr baseline and the development of new point spread function/primary beam models to seamlessly merge e -MERLIN and VLA data in the uv plane. We present early science results, including measurements of the luminosities and/or linear sizes of ∼500 galaxies selected at 1.5 GHz. In combination with deep Hubble Space Telescope observations, we measure a mean radio-to-optical size ratio of r e-MERGE/ r HST ∼ 1.02 ± 0.03, suggesting that in most high-redshift galaxies, the ∼GHz continuum emission traces the stellar light seen in optical imaging. This is the first in a series of papers that will explore the ∼kpc-scale radio properties of star-forming galaxies and AGN in the GOODS-N field observed by e -MERGE DR1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The occurrence of active galactic nuclei (AGN) is critical to our understanding of galaxy evolution and formation. Radio observations provide a crucial, dust-independent tool to study the role of AGN. However, conventional radio surveys of deep fields ordinarily have arc-second scale resolutions often insufficient to reliably separate radio emission in distant galaxies originating from star-formation and AGN-related activity. Very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) can offer a solution by identifying only the most compact radio emitting regions in galaxies at cosmological distances where the high brightness temperatures (in excess of 105 K) can only be reliably attributed to AGN activity. Aims. We present the first in a series of papers exploring the faint compact radio population using a new wide-field VLBI survey of the GOODS-N field. This will expand upon previous surveys, permitting the characterisation of the faint, compact radio source population in the GOODS-N field. The unparalleled sensitivity of the European VLBI Network (EVN) will probe a luminosity range rarely seen in deep wide-field VLBI observations, thus providing insights into the role of AGN to radio luminosities of the order 1022 WHz−1 across cosmic time. Methods. The newest VLBI techniques are used to completely cover an entire 7′̣5 radius area to milliarcsecond resolutions, while bright radio sources (S > 0.1 mJy) are targeted up to 25′ from the pointing centre. Multi-source self-calibration, and a primary beam model for the EVN array are used to correct for residual phase errors and primary beam attenuation respectively. Results. This paper presents the largest catalogue of VLBI detected sources in GOODS-N comprising of 31 compact radio sources across a redshift range of 0.11–3.44, almost three times more than previous VLBI surveys in this field. We provide a machine-readable catalogue and introduce the radio properties of the detected sources using complementary data from the e-MERLIN Galaxy Evolution survey (eMERGE). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We studied the nearby, interacting galaxy NGC 5195 (M 51b) in the radio, optical and X-ray bands. We mapped the extended, low-surface-brightness features of its radio-continuum emission; determined the energy content of its complex structure of shock-ionized gas; constrained the current activity level of its supermassive nuclear black hole. In particular, we combined data from the European Very Long Baseline Interferometry Network (∼1-pc scale), from our new e-MERLIN observations (∼10-pc scale), and from the Very Large Array (∼100–1000-pc scale), to obtain a global picture of energy injection in this galaxy. We put an upper limit to the luminosity of the (undetected) flat-spectrum radio core. We find steep-spectrum, extended emission within 10 pc of the nuclear position, consistent with optically thin synchrotron emission from nuclear star formation or from an outflow powered by an active galactic nucleus (AGN). A linear spur of radio emission juts out of the nuclear source towards the kpc-scale arcs (detected in radio, Hα and X-ray bands). From the size, shock velocity, and Balmer line luminosity of the kpc-scale bubble, we estimate that it was inflated by a long-term-average mechanical power ∼3–6 × 1041 erg s−1 over the last 3–6 Myr. This is an order of magnitude more power than can be provided by the current level of star formation, and by the current accretion power of the supermassive black hole. We argue that a jet-inflated bubble scenario associated with previous episodes of AGN activity is the most likely explanation for the kpc-scale structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present new observations of the GOODS-N field obtained at 5.5 GHz with the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array. The central region of the field was imaged to a median rms of 3 μJy beam-1 with a resolution of 0.5 arcsec. From a 14-arcmin diameter region, we extracted a sample of 94 radio sources with signal-to-noise ratio greater than 5. Near-IR identifications are available for about ~88 per cent of the radio sources. We used different multiband diagnostics to separate active galactic nuclei (AGNs), both radiatively efficient and inefficient, from starforming galaxies. From our analysis, we find that about 80 per cent of our radio-selected sample is AGN dominated, with the fraction rising to 92 per cent when considering only the radio sources with redshift >1.5. This large fraction of AGN-dominated radio sources at very low flux densities (the median flux density at 5.5 GHz is 42 μJy), where star-forming galaxies are expected to dominate, is somewhat surprising and at odds with other results. Our interpretation is that both the frequency and angular resolution of our radio observations strongly select against radio sources whose brightness distribution is diffuse on a scale of several kpc. Indeed, we find that the median angular sizes of the AGN-dominated sources is around 0.2,.0.3 arcsec against 0.8 arcsec for star-forming galaxies. This highlights the key role that high frequency radio observations can play in pinpointing AGN-driven radio emission at μJy levels. This work is part of the eMERGE legacy project. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

IC 883 is a luminous infrared galaxy (LIRG) classified as a starburst-active galactic nucleus (AGN) composite. In a previous study, we detected a low-luminosity AGN (LLAGN) radio candidate. Here, we report on our radio follow-up at three frequencies that provides direct and unequivocal evidence of the AGN activity in IC 883. Our analysis of archival X-ray data, together with the detection of a transient radio source with luminosity typical of bright supernovae, gives further evidence of the ongoing star formation activity, which dominates the energetics of the system. At sub-parsec scales, the radio nucleus has a core-jet morphology with the jet being a newly ejected component showing a subluminal proper motion of 0.6-1 c. The AGN contributes less than 2 per cent of the total IR luminosity of the system. The corresponding Eddington factor is ~10-3, suggesting this is a low-accretion rate engine, as often found in LLAGNs. However, its high bolometric luminosity (~1044 erg s-1) agrees better with a normal AGN. This apparent discrepancy may just be an indication of the transition nature of the nucleus from a system dominated by star formation, to an AGN-dominated system. The nucleus has a strongly inverted spectrum and a turnover at ~4.4 GHz, thus qualifying as a candidate for the least luminous (L5.0 GHz ~ 6.3 ⨰ 1028 erg s-1 Hz-1) and one of the youngest (~3 ⨰ 103 yr) gigahertz-peaked spectrum (GPS) sources. If the GPS origin for the IC 883 nucleus is confirmed, then advanced mergers in the LIRG category are potentially key environments to unveil the evolution of GPS sources into more powerful radio galaxies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The galaxy NGC 4418 contains one of the most compact obscured nuclei within a luminous infrared galaxy (LIRG) in the nearby Universe. This nucleus contains a rich molecular gas environment and an unusually high ratio of infrared-to-radio luminosity (q-factor). The compact nucleus is powered by either a compact starburst or an active galactic nucleus (AGN). Aims. The aim of this study is to constrain the nature of the nuclear region (starburst or AGN) within NGC 4418 via very-high-resolution radio imaging. Methods. Archival data from radio observations using the European Very Long Baseline Interferometry Network (EVN) and Multi-Element Radio Linked Interferometer Network (MERLIN) interferometers are imaged. Sizes and flux densities are obtained by fitting Gaussian intensity distributions to the image. The average spectral index of the compact radio emission is estimated from measurements at 1.4 GHz and 5.0 GHz. Results. The nuclear structure of NGC 4418 visible with EVN and MERLIN consists of eight compact (<49 mas i.e. <8 pc) features spread within a region of 250 mas, i.e. 41 pc. We derive an inverted spectral index α ≥ 0.7 (Sν ∝ να) for the compact radio emission. Conclusions. Brightness temperatures >104.8 K indicate that these compact features cannot be HII-regions. The complex morphology and inverted spectrum of the eight detected compact features is evidence against the hypothesis that an AGN alone is powering the nucleus of NGC 4418. The compact features could be super star clusters with intense star formation, and their associated free-free absorption could then naturally explain both their inverted radio spectrum and the low radio-to-IR ratio of the nucleus. The required star formation area density is extreme, however, and close to the limit of what can be observed in a well-mixed thermal/non-thermal plasma produced by star formation, and is also close to the limit of what can be physically sustained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Understanding the nature of the power-source in luminous infrared galaxies (LIRG) is difficult due to their extreme obscuration. Observations at radio and mm wavelengths can penetrate large columns of dust and gas and provide unique insights into the properties of the compact obscured nuclei of LIRGs. Aims. The aim of this study is to constrain the dynamics, structure, and feeding of the compact nucleus of NGC 4418, and to reveal the nature of the main hidden power-source: starburst or active galactic nucleus (AGN). Methods. We obtained high spatial resolution observations of NGC 4418 at 1.4 and 5 GHz with MERLIN, and at 230 and 270 GHz with the SMA in very extended configuration. We used the continuum morphology and flux density to estimate the size of the emitting region, the star formation rate, and the dust temperature. Emission lines were used to study kinematics through position-velocity diagrams. Molecular emission was studied with population diagrams and by fitting a local thermal equilibrium (LTE) synthetic spectrum. Results. We detect bright 1-mm-line emission from CO, HC3N, HNC, and C34S and 1.4 GHz absorption from HI. The CO 2-1 emission and HI absorption can be fit by two velocity components at 2090 and 2180 km?s-1. We detect vibrationally excited HC3N and HNC, with Tvib ∼ 300 K. Molecular excitation is consistent with a layered temperature structure, with three main components at 80, 160, and 300 K. For the hot component we estimate a source size of less than 5 pc. The nuclear molecular gas surface density of 104M⊚ pc-2 is extremely high and similar to that found in the ultra-luminous infrared galaxy (ULIRG) Arp220. Conclusions. Our observations confirm the presence of a molecular and atomic in-flow, previously suggested by Herschel observations, which is feeding the activity in the center of NGC 4418. Molecular excitation confirms the presence of a very compact, hot dusty core. If a starburst is responsible for the observed IR flux, this has to be at least as extreme as the one in the ULIRG Arp 220, with an age of 3-10 Myr and a star formation rate >10 M⊚ yr-1. If an AGN is present, it must be extremely Compton-thick. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT We present interferometric CO observations of 12 z∼ 2 submillimetre-faint, star-forming radio galaxies (SFRGs) which are thought to be ultraluminous infrared galaxies (ULIRGs) possibly dominated by warmer dust ( Tdust ≳ 40 K) than submillimetre galaxies (SMGs) of similar luminosities. Four other CO-observed SFRGs are included from the literature, and all the observations are taken at the Plateau de Bure Interferometer (PdBI) in the compact configuration. 10 of the 16 SFRGs observed in CO (63 per cent) are detected at >4σ with a mean inferred molecular gas mass of ∼2 × 1010 M⊙. SFRGs trend slightly above the local ULIRG LFIR- L′CO relation. Since SFRGs are about two times fainter in radio luminosity but exhibit similar CO luminosities to SMGs, this suggests SFRGs are slightly more efficient star formers than SMGs at the same redshifts. SFRGs also have a narrow mean CO linewidth, 320 ± 80 km s−1. Many SMGs have similarly narrow CO linewidths, but very broad features (∼900 km s−1) are present in a few SMGs and are absent from SFRGs. SFRGs bridge the gap between properties of very luminous >5 × 1012 L⊙ SMGs and those of local ULIRGs, and are consistent with intermediate-stage major mergers. We suspect that more moderate luminosity SMGs, not yet surveyed in CO, would show similar molecular gas properties to SFRGs. The active galactic nucleus (AGN) fraction of SFRGs is consistent with SMGs and is estimated to be 0.3 ± 0.1, suggesting that SFRGs are observed near the peak phase of star formation activity and not in a later, post-SMG enhanced AGN phase. The excitation analysis of one SFRG is consistent with the CO excitation observed in SMGs [turning over beyond 12CO( J= 4→3)]. This CO survey of SFRGs serves as a pilot project for the much more extensive survey of Herschel and SCUBA-2 selected sources which only partially overlap with SMGs. Better constraints on the CO properties of a diverse high- z ULIRG population are needed from ALMA to determine the evolutionary origin of extreme starbursts, and what role ULIRGs serve in catalyzing the formation of massive stellar systems in the early Universe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present high spatial resolution Multi-Element Radio-Linked Interferometer Network (MERLIN) 1.4-GHz radio observations of two high-redshift sources, RG J123623 (HDF 147) and RG J123617 (HDF 130), selected as the brightest radio sources from a sample of submillimetre-faint radio galaxies. They have starburst classifications from their rest-frame ultraviolet spectra. However, their radio morphologies are remarkably compact (<80 and <65 mas, respectively), demanding that the radio luminosity be dominated by active galactic nuclei (AGN) rather than starbursts. Near-infrared (IR) imaging [ Hubble Space Telescope Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS) F160W] shows large-scale sizes ( , diameters ∼12 kpc) and spectral energy distribution (SED) fitting to photometric points (optical through the mid-IR) reveals massive , old (a few Gyr) stellar populations. Both sources have low flux densities at observed 24 μm and are undetected in observed 70 μm and 850 μm, suggesting a low mass of interstellar dust. They are also formally undetected in the ultradeep 2 Ms Chandra data, suggesting that any AGN activity is likely intrinsically weak. We suggest both galaxies have evolved stellar populations, low star formation rates and low accretion rates on to massive black holes whose radio luminosity is weakly beamed (by factors of a few). A cluster-like environment has been identified near HDF 130 by an overdensity of galaxies at , reinforcing the claim that clusters lead to more rapid evolution in galaxy populations. These observations suggest that high-resolution radio (MERLIN) can be a superb diagnostic tool of AGN in the diverse galaxy populations at . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]