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Periosteal reactions, porotic hyperostosis, and cribra orbitalia have been traditionally used in bioarchaeological studies as indicators of poor "health." However, the etiology of these conditions is greatly debated, not to mention the fact that the presence of these non-specific indicators of disease may in fact represent individuals who were able to combat the insult. Bone is limited in the way it can respond; therefore, the osteoblastic and osteoclastic responses involved in these indicators can represent a range of responses to stress (nutritional or environmental), disease, trauma, or congenital conditions. The clinical literature is quite varied on the cause of these skeletal conditions. With a reinterpretation of these pathological conditions in mind, we evaluate data on these three osteological markers of stress in a large skeletal sample from central California (n = 3000+) spanning nearly 5000 years (3050 BC – AD 1899). While there are temporal and regional trends in these skeletal markers, they do not always correspond to known periods of stress (e.g., environmental disruptions, European contact), and do not correspond with each other in terms of prevalence. We, therefore, offer an alternative explanation of these pathological conditions in light of these findings. Patterns of periosteal reactions may be a marker of survivability as they are most commonly seen in older individuals and decrease in times of extreme stress. Patterns of cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis tend to track with times of stress; however, they are predominately seen in old adults. The lack of detailed data collection further makes their interpretation difficult. • Stress and health are complicated phenomena to interpret in bioarchaeology. • Traditional nonspecific stress indicators do not always correspond to stress. • Interpretations of past health and stress should incorporate clinical literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Observer error and agreement rates for craniometrics, odontometrics, and cranial and dental morphological traits have been inconsistently evaluated on three-dimensional cranial reconstructions and almost never assessed on subadult individuals. This study uses a computed tomography (CT) scan sample of 12 subadults aged between birth and 20 years from the Subadult Virtual Anthropology Database (SVAD) to evaluate intra- and inter-observer error and agreement rates associated to these four types of data on virtual crania. Forty-eight cranial landmarks, 33 standard inter-landmark distances (ILDs), 13 cranial macromorphoscopic traits, four permanent and four deciduous dental landmarks and measurements per tooth, and 21 permanent and 12 deciduous dental morphological traits were collected on each individual. Results matched or improved on published standards for dry bones, teeth, or dental casts. Technical Error of Measurement (TEM) associated with metric data ranged from 0.00 mm to 0.99 mm and relative TEM ranged from 0% to 5.76%. Cohen's kappa coefficient values for agreement on morphological traits scores were above K = 0.5 for 90% of the traits. Type III cranial landmarks showed higher error rates than Type I and II cranial landmarks. Agreement on dental morphology scores seemed influenced by observer experience and rater agreement improved when using di- or tri-chotomized grades. Skeletal maturity did not significantly affect error rates, meaning most craniofacial and dental metrics and morphological traits can be reliably obtained from virtual subadult crania. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]