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In ribosomopathies, the Diamond-Blackfan anemia (DBA) or 5q- syndrome, ribosomal protein (RP) genes are affected by mutation or deletion, resulting in bone marrow erythroid hypoplasia. Unbalanced production of ribosomal subunits leading to a limited ribosome cellular content regulates translation at the expense of the master erythroid transcription factor GATA1. In RPS14-deficient cells mimicking 5q- syndrome erythroid defects, we show that the transcript length, codon bias of the coding sequence (CDS) and 3’UTR (untranslated region) structure are the key determinants of translation. In these cells, short transcripts with a structured 3’UTR and high codon adaptation index (CAI) showed a decreased translation efficiency. Quantitative analysis of the whole proteome confirmed that the post-transcriptional changes depended on the transcript characteristics that governed the translation efficiency in conditions of low ribosome availability. In addition, proteins involved in normal erythroid differentiation share most determinants of translation selectivity. Our findings thus indicate that impaired erythroid maturation due to 5q- syndrome may proceed from a translational selectivity at the expense of the erythroid differentiation program, and suggest that an interplay between the CDS and UTR may regulate mRNA translation.

International audience; In addition to its role in translation termination, eRF3A has been implicated in the nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) pathway through its interaction with UPF1. NMD is a RNA quality control mechanism, which detects and degrades aberrant mRNAs as well as some normal transcripts including those that harbour upstream open reading frames in their 5' leader sequence. In this study, we used RNA-sequencing and ribosome profiling to perform a genome wide analysis of the effect of either eRF3A or UPF1 depletion in human cells. Our bioinformatics analyses allow to delineate the features of the transcripts controlled by eRF3A and UPF1 and to compare the effect of each of these factors on gene expression. We find that eRF3A and UPF1 have very different impacts on the human transcriptome, less than 250 transcripts being targeted by both factors. We show that eRF3A depletion globally derepresses the expression of mRNAs containing translated uORFs while UPF1 knockdown derepresses only the mRNAs harbouring uORFs with an AUG codon in an optimal context for translation initiation. Finally, we also find that eRF3A and UPF1 have opposite effects on ribosome protein gene expression. Together, our results provide important elements for understanding the impact of translation termination and NMD on the human transcriptome and reveal novel determinants of ribosome biogenesis regulation.

Little is known about the rate of emergence of de novo genes, what their initial properties are, and how they spread in populations. We examined wild yeast populations (Saccharomyces paradoxus) to characterize the diversity and turnover of intergenic ORFs over short evolutionary timescales. We find that hundreds of intergenic ORFs show translation signatures similar to canonical genes, and we experimentally confirmed the translation of many of these ORFs in laboratory conditions using a reporter assay. Compared with canonical genes, intergenic ORFs have lower translation efficiency, which could imply a lack of optimization for translation or a mechanism to reduce their production cost. Translated intergenic ORFs also tend to have sequence properties that are generally close to those of random intergenic sequences. However, some of the very recent translated intergenic ORFs, which appeared

Little is known about the rate of emergence of genes de novo, how they spread in populations and what their initial properties are. We examined wild Saccharomyces paradoxus populations to characterize the diversity and turnover of intergenic ORFs over short evolutionary time-scales. We identified ~34,000 intergenic ORFs per individual genome for a total of ~64,000 orthogroups, which resulted from an estimated turnover rate relatively smaller than the rate of gene duplication in yeast. Hundreds of intergenic ORFs show translation signatures, similar to canonical genes, but lower translation efficiency, which could reduce their potential production cost or simply reflect a lack of optimization. Translated intergenic ORFs tend to display low expression levels with sequence properties that are on average closer to expectations based on intergenic sequences. However, some predicted de novo polypeptides with gene-like properties emerged from ancient as well as recent birth events, illustrating that the raw material for functional innovations may appear even over short evolutionary time-scales. Our results suggest that variation in the mutation rate along the genome impacts the turnover of random polypeptides, which may in turn influence their early evolutionary trajectory. Whereas low mutation rate regions allow more time for random intergenic ORFs to evolve and become functional before being lost, mutation hotspots allow for the rapid exploration of the molecular landscape, thereby increasing the probability to acquire a polypeptide with immediate gene-like properties and thus functional potential.

The YgjD/Kae1 family (COG0533) has been on the top-10 list of universally conserved proteins of unknown function for over 5 years. It has been linked to DNA maintenance in bacteria and mitochondria and transcription regulation and telomere homeostasis in eukaryotes, but its actual function has never been found. Based on a comparative genomic and structural analysis, we predicted this family was involved in the biosynthesis of N6-threonylcarbamoyl adenosine, a universal modification found at position 37 of tRNAs decoding ANN codons. This was confirmed as a yeast mutant lacking Kae1 is devoid of t6A. t6A− strains were also used to reveal that t6A has a critical role in initiation codon restriction to AUG and in restricting frameshifting at tandem ANN codons. We also showed that YaeZ, a YgjD paralog, is required for YgjD function in vivo in bacteria. This work lays the foundation for understanding the pleiotropic role of this universal protein family.

International audience; Translation termination in eukaryotes is completed by two interacting factors eRF1 and eRF3. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, these proteins are encoded by the genes SUP45 and SUP35, respectively. The eRF1 protein interacts directly with the stop codon at the ribosomal A-site, whereas eRF3-a GTPase protein-probably acts as a proofreading factor, coupling stop codon recognition to polypeptide chain release. We performed random PCR mutagenesis of SUP45 and screened the library for mutations resulting in increased eRF1 activity. These mutations led to the identification of two new pockets in domain 1 (P1 and P2) involved in the regulation of eRF1 activity. Furthermore, we identified novel mutations located in domains 2 and 3, which confer stop codon specificity to eRF1. Our findings are consistent with the model of a closed-active conformation of eRF1 and shed light on two new functional regions of the protein.

In eukaryotes, release factors 1 and 3 (eRF1 and eRF3) are recruited to promote translation termination when a stop codon on the mRNA enters at the ribosomal A-site. However, their overexpression increases termination efficiency only moderately, suggesting that other factors might be involved in the termination process. To determine such unknown components, we performed a genetic screen in Saccharomyces cerevisiae that identified genes increasing termination efficiency when overexpressed. For this purpose, we constructed a dedicated reporter strain in which a leaky stop codon is inserted into the chromosomal copy of the ade2 gene. Twenty-five antisuppressor candidates were identified and characterized for their impact on readthrough. Among them, SSB1 and snR18, two factors close to the exit tunnel of the ribosome, directed the strongest antisuppression effects when overexpressed, showing that they may be involved in fine-tuning of the translation termination level.

Motivation: Ribosome profiling provides genome-wide information about translational regulation. However, there is currently no standard tool for the qualitative analysis of Ribo-seq data. We present here RiboTools, a Galaxy toolbox for the analysis of ribosome profiling (Ribo-seq) data. It can be used to detect translational ambiguities, stop codon readthrough events and codon occupancy. It provides a large number of plots for the visualisation of these events. Availability and implementation: RiboTools is available from https://testtoolshed.g2.bx.psu.edu/view/rlegendre/ribo_tools as part of the Galaxy Project, under the GPLv3 licence. It is written in python2.7 and uses standard python libraries, such as matplotlib and numpy. Contact: olivier.namy@igmors.u-psud.fr Supplementary Information: Supplementary data are available from Bioinformatics online.

International audience; In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the essential IMP3 gene encodes a component of the SSU processome, a large ribonucleoprotein complex required for processing of small ribosomal subunit RNA precursors. Mutation of the IMP3 termination codon to a sense codon resulted in a viable mutant allele producing a C-terminal elongated form of the Imp3 protein. A strain expressing the mutant allele displayed ribosome biogenesis defects equivalent to IMP3 depletion. This hypomorphic allele represented a unique opportunity to investigate and better understand the Imp3p functions. We demonstrated that the +1 frameshifting was increased in the mutant strain. Further characterizations revealed involvement of the Imp3 protein in DNA repair and telomere length control, pointing to a functional relationship between both pathways and ribosome biogenesis.

International audience; Many different modified nucleotides are found in naturally occurring tRNA, especially in the anticodon region. Their importance for the efficiency of the translational process begins to be well documented. Here we have analyzed the in vivo effect of deleting genes coding for yeast tRNA-modifying enzymes, namely Pus1p, Pus3p, Pus4p, or Trm4p, on termination readthrough and +1 frameshift events. To this end, we have transformed each of the yeast deletion strains with a lacZ-luc dual-reporter vector harboring selected programmed recoding sites. We have found that only deletion of the PUS3 gene, encoding the enzyme that introduces pseudouridines at position 38 or 39 in tRNA, has an effect on the efficiency of the translation process. In this mutant, we have observed a reduced readthrough efficiency of each stop codon by natural nonsense suppressor tRNAs. This effect is solely due to the absence of pseudouridine 38 or 39 in tRNA because the inactive mutant protein Pus3[D151A]p did not restore the level of natural readthrough. Our results also show that absence of pseudouridine 39 in the slippery tRNA(UAG)(Leu) reduces +1 frameshift efficiency. Therefore, the presence of pseudouridine 38 or 39 in the tRNA anticodon arm enhances misreading of certain codons by natural nonsense tRNAs as well as promotes frameshifting on slippery sequences in yeast.

The efficiency of translation termination depends on the nature of the stop codon and the surrounding nucleotides. Some molecules, such as aminoglycoside antibiotics (gentamicin), decrease termination efficiency and are currently being evaluated for diseases caused by premature termination codons. However, the readthrough response to treatment is highly variable and little is known about the rules governing readthrough level and response to aminoglycosides. In this study, we carried out in-depth statistical analysis on a very large set of nonsense mutations to decipher the elements of nucleotide context responsible for modulating readthrough levels and gentamicin response. We quantified readthrough for 66 sequences containing a stop codon, in the presence and absence of gentamicin, in cultured mammalian cells. We demonstrated that the efficiency of readthrough after treatment is determined by the complex interplay between the stop codon and a larger sequence context. There was a strong positive correlation between basal and induced readthrough levels, and a weak negative correlation between basal readthrough level and gentamicin response (i.e. the factor of increase from basal to induced readthrough levels). The identity of the stop codon did not affect the response to gentamicin treatment. In agreement with a previous report, we confirm that the presence of a cytosine in +4 position promotes higher basal and gentamicin-induced readthrough than other nucleotides. We highlight for the first time that the presence of a uracil residue immediately upstream from the stop codon is a major determinant of the response to gentamicin. Moreover, this effect was mediated by the nucleotide itself, rather than by the amino-acid or tRNA corresponding to the −1 codon. Finally, we point out that a uracil at this position associated with a cytosine at +4 results in an optimal gentamicin-induced readthrough, which is the therapeutically relevant variable., Author Summary Nonsense mutations are single-nucleotide variations within the coding sequence of a gene that result in a premature termination codon. The presence of such mutations leads to the synthesis of a truncated protein unable to fulfill its normal function. Over the last ten years, treatment strategies have emerged based on the use of molecules, such as aminoglycoside antibiotics (gentamicin) that facilitate the readthrough of premature termination codons, thus restoring the synthesis of a full-length protein. Such strategies have been tested for various genetic diseases, including Duchenne muscular dystrophy and cystic fibrosis. The readthrough level depends on the nature of the stop codon and the surrounding nucleotide context, but little was known of the rules governing readthrough level and response to aminoglycosides. In this study, we use a large set of nonsense mutations for an in-depth statistical analysis designed to decipher the element of the nucleotide context responsible for modulating readthrough levels. We analyse the impact of the six nucleotides upstream and downstream from the stop codon. We demonstrate that the presence of a uracil residue immediately upstream the stop codon is associated with a stronger response to gentamicin treatment than the presence of any of the other three nucleotides.

Background When a stop codon is located in the ribosomal A-site, the termination complex promotes release of the polypeptide and dissociation of the 80S ribosome. In eukaryotes two proteins eRF1 and eRF3 play a crucial function in the termination process. The essential GTPase Sup35p, the eRF3 release factor of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is highly conserved. In particular, we observed that all eRF3 homologs share a potential phosphorylation site at threonine 341, suggesting a functional role for this residue. The goal of this study was to determine whether this residue is actually phosphorylated in yeast and if it is involved in the termination activity of the protein. Results We detected no phosphorylation of the Sup35 protein in vivo. However, we show that it is phosphorylated by the cAMP-dependent protein kinase A on T341 in vitro. T341 was mutated to either alanine or to aspartic acid to assess the role of this residue in the activity of the protein. Both mutant proteins showed a large decrease of GTPase activity and a reduced interaction with eRF1/Sup45p. This was correlated with an increase of translational readthrough in cells carrying the mutant alleles. We also show that this residue is involved in functional interaction between the N- and C-domains of the protein. Conclusion Our results point to a new critical residue involved in the translation termination activity of Sup35 and in functional interaction between the N- and C-domains of the protein. They also raise interesting questions about the relation between GTPase activity of Sup35 and its essential function in yeast.