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International audience; Penicillium is a diverse fungal genus with hundreds of species occurring worldwide in various substrates, from soil to food, and with various lifestyles, from necrotrophic pathogenicity to endophytic mutualism. Several species are important for human affairs, being widely used in industry, such as the penicillin-producer P. rubens, the two cheese starters P. camemberti and P. roqueforti, and the mould used for fermenting sausages, P. nalgiovense. Other species are food spoilers that produce harmful mycotoxins or cause damages in fruit crops. Currently , 30 genomes of Penicillium belonging to 18 species are available. In this chapter, we reconstruct a phylogenetic tree based on available Penicillium genomes and outline the main features of the genomes, such as gene and transposable element content. We then review the recent advances that the available genomic and transcriptomic resources in the Penicillium genus have allowed regarding our understanding of the genomic processes of adaptation, including changes in gene content, expression and strikingly frequent and recent horizontal gene transfers. In addition, we summarize recent studies using genetic markers on the level of genetic diversity, mode of reproduction and population structure within Penicillium species. Overall, the Penicillium genus appears a highly suitable model for studying the mechanisms of adaptation. Introduction Penicillium is a diverse fungal genus with 354 accepted species today (Visagie et al., 2014b), occurring worldwide in various substrates, from soil to food. Their lifestyles also cover a broad range, from necrotrophic pathogenicity to endophytic mutualism, although most are saprotrophs. As a consequence of these ecological niches, many Penicillium species have important economic and social relevance for human populations. Several species are widely used in industry, such as the penicillin-producer P. rubens, the two cheese starters P. camem-berti and P. roqueforti, and the mould used for fermenting sausages, P. nalgiovense (Bernáldez et al., 2013). Other species cause damages and yield loss in fruit crops, e.g. P. digitatum and P. italicum, while others are a concern for food safety because of their production of myco-toxins, such as patulin (Eckert and Eaks, 1989; McCallum et al., 2002).

Cet article a été publié une nouvelle fois dans le numéro 362 http://femsle.oxfordjournals.org/content/362/1/1.20#sec-1; Microbial communities living on cheese surfaces are composed of various bacteria, yeasts and molds that interact together, thus generating the typical sensory properties of a cheese. Physiological and genomic investigations have revealed important functions involved in the ability of microorganisms to establish themselves at the cheese surface. These functions include the ability to use the cheese's main energy sources, to acquire iron, to tolerate low pH at the beginning of ripening and to adapt to high salt concentrations and moisture levels. Horizontal gene transfer events involved in the adaptation to the cheese habitat have been described, both for bacteria and fungi. In the future, in situ microbial gene expression profiling and identification of genes that contribute to strain fitness by massive sequencing of transposon libraries will help us to better understand how cheese surface communities function.

Cheese ripening involves the activity of various bacteria, yeasts or molds, which contribute to the development of the typical color, flavor and texture of the final product. In situ measurements of gene expression are increasingly being used to improve our understanding of the microbial flora activity in cheeses. The objective of the present study was to investigate the physiology and metabolic activity of Geotrichum candidum during the ripening of Reblochon-type cheeses by quantifying mRNA transcripts at various ripening times. The expression of 80 genes involved in various functions could be quantified with a correct level of biological repeatability using a set of three stable reference genes. As ripening progresses, a decrease in expression was observed for genes involved in cell wall organization, translation, vesicular mediated transport, and in cytoskeleton constituents and ribosomal protein genes. There was also a decrease in the expression of mitochondrial F1F0 ATP synthase and plasma membrane H(+) ATPase genes. Some genes involved in the catabolism of lactate, acetate and ethanol were expressed to a greater extent at the beginning of ripening. During the second part of ripening, there was an increased expression of genes involved in the transport and catabolism of amino acids, which could be attributed to a change in the energy source. There was also an increase in the expression of genes involved in autophagy and of genes possibly involved in lifespan determination. Quantification of mRNA transcripts may also be used to produce bioindicators relevant for cheesemaking, for example when considering genes encoding enzymes involved in the catabolism of amino acids.

The acquisition of the correct folding of membrane proteins is a crucial process that involves several steps from the recognition of nascent protein, its targeting to the endoplasmic reticulum membrane, its insertion, and its sorting to its final destination. Yarrowia lipolytica is a hemiascomycetous dimorphic yeast and an alternative eukaryotic yeast model with an efficient secretion pathway. To better understand the quality control of membrane proteins, we constructed a model system based on the uracil permease. Mutated forms of the permease were stabilized and retained in the cell and made the strains resistant to the 5-fluorouracil drug. To identify proteins involved in the quality control, we separated proteins extracted in nondenaturing conditions on blue native gels to keep proteins associated in complexes. Some gel fragments where the model protein was immunodetected were subjected to mass spectrometry analysis. The proteins identified gave a picture of the folding proteome, from the translocation across the endoplasmic reticulum membrane, the folding of the proteins, to the vesicle transport to Golgi or the degradation via the proteasome. For example, EMC complex, Gsf2p or Yet3p, chaperone membrane proteins of the endoplasmic reticulum were identified in the Y. lipolytica native proteome.

Background Protein secretion is a universal cellular process involving vesicles which bud and fuse between organelles to bring proteins to their final destination. Vesicle budding is mediated by protein coats; vesicle targeting and fusion depend on Rab GTPase, tethering factors and SNARE complexes. The Génolevures II sequencing project made available entire genome sequences of four hemiascomycetous yeasts, Yarrowia lipolytica, Debaryomyces hansenii, Kluyveromyces lactis and Candida glabrata. Y. lipolytica is a dimorphic yeast and has good capacities to secrete proteins. The translocation of nascent protein through the endoplasmic reticulum membrane was well studied in Y. lipolytica and is largely co-translational as in the mammalian protein secretion pathway. Results We identified S. cerevisiae proteins involved in vesicular secretion and these protein sequences were used for the BLAST searches against Génolevures protein database (Y. lipolytica, C. glabrata, K. lactis and D. hansenii). These proteins are well conserved between these yeasts and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We note several specificities of Y. lipolytica which may be related to its good protein secretion capacities and to its dimorphic aspect. An expansion of the Y. lipolytica Rab protein family was observed with autoBLAST and the Rab2- and Rab4-related members were identified with BLAST against NCBI protein database. An expansion of this family is also found in filamentous fungi and may reflect the greater complexity of the Y. lipolytica secretion pathway. The Rab4p-related protein may play a role in membrane recycling as rab4 deleted strain shows a modification of colony morphology, dimorphic transition and permeability. Similarly, we find three copies of the gene (SSO) encoding the plasma membrane SNARE protein. Quantification of the percentages of proteins with the greatest homology between S. cerevisiae, Y. lipolytica and animal homologues involved in vesicular transport shows that 40% of Y. lipolytica proteins are closer to animal ones, whereas they are only 13% in the case of S. cerevisiae. Conclusion These results provide further support for the idea, previously noted about the endoplasmic reticulum translocation pathway, that Y. lipolytica is more representative of vesicular secretion of animals and other fungi than is S. cerevisiae.

Identifying the mechanisms of eukaryotic genome evolution by comparative genomics is often complicated by the multiplicity of events that have taken place throughout the history of individual lineages, leaving only distorted and superimposed traces in the genome of each living organism. The hemiascomycete yeasts, with their compact genomes, similar lifestyle and distinct sexual and physiological properties, provide a unique opportunity to explore such mechanisms. We present here the complete, assembled genome sequences of four yeast species, selected to represent a broad evolutionary range within a single eukaryotic phylum, that after analysis proved to be molecularly as diverse as the entire phylum of chordates. A total of approximately 24,200 novel genes were identified, the translation products of which were classified together with Saccharomyces cerevisiae proteins into about 4,700 families, forming the basis for interspecific comparisons. Analysis of chromosome maps and genome redundancies reveal that the different yeast lineages have evolved through a marked interplay between several distinct molecular mechanisms, including tandem gene repeat formation, segmental duplication, a massive genome duplication and extensive gene loss.

The Sec61 protein is required for protein translocation across the ER membrane in both yeast and mammals and is found in close association with polypeptides during their membrane transit. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae Sec61p is essential for viability and the extent of sequence similarity between the yeast and mammalian proteins (55% sequence identity) suggests that the role of Sec61p in the translocation mechanism is likely to be conserved. In order to further our understanding of the structure and function of Sec61p we have cloned homologues from both Schizosaccharomyces pombe and Yarrowia lipolytica. The S. pombe gene comprises six exons encoding a 479 residue protein which we have immunolocalised to the endoplasmic reticulum. Sequence comparisons reveal that S. pombe Sec61p is 58.6% identical to that of S. cerevisiae. The deduced amino acid sequence of the Y. lipolytica protein shares 68.8% sequence identity with S. cerevisiae Sec61p. Gene disruption studies have shown that the SEC61 is required for viability in both S. pombe and Y. lipolytica demonstrating that the essential nature of this protein is not unique to S. cerevisiae. Moreover, heterologous complementation studies indicate that the Y. lipolytica SEC61 gene can complement a null mutation in S. cerevisiae. Sequence comparisons between the various eukaryotic Sec61p homologues reveal a number of highly conserved domains, including several transmembrane sequences and the majority of cytosolic loops. These comparisons will provide an important framework for the detailed analysis of interactions between Sec61p and other components of the translocation machinery and between Sec61p and translocating polypeptide chains.

Yarrowia lipolytica SEC62 cDNA was cloned by functional complementation of a thermo-sensitive sec62 Saccharomyces cerevisiae mutant strain. The Y. lipolytica SEC62 promoter region was amplified by the inverse polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The cDNA codes for a 396 amino-acid protein with two potential trans-membrane domains. Y. lipolytica Sec62p behaves as an integral membrane protein as shown by Western blotting. Y. lipolytica SEC62 cDNA is able to complement a S. cerevisiae sec62 null mutant strain confirming functional conservation, although only 53.6% amino-acid similarity is observed between Y. lipolytica and S. cerevisiae Sec62.

Yarrowia lipolytica and Kluyveromyces lactis secretion vectors were constructed and assessed for the expression of heterologous proteins. An anti-Ras single-chain antibody fragment (scFv) coding sequence was fused in-frame to different pre- or prepro-regions, or downstream from a reporter secretory gene (Arxula adeninivorans glucoamylase), separated by a Kex2 protease (Kex2p)-like processing sequence. Both organisms are able to secrete soluble scFv, with yields depending on the nature of the expression cassette, up to levels ranging from 10 to 20 mg l(-1). N-terminal sequence analysis of the purified scFv showed that fusions are correctly processed to the mature scFv by a signal peptidase or a Kex2p-type endoprotease present in Y. lipolytica and K. lactis. The scFv protein also retains the capacity to bind to a glutathioneS-transferase (GST)-Harvey-Ras(Val12) fusion, indicating that the antibody is functional. These results indicate that the yeasts Y. lipolytica and K. lactis have potential for industrial production of soluble and active scFv.