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One of the main components of senile plaques in Alzheimer’s disease (AD)-affected brain is the Aβ peptide species harboring a pyroglutamate at position three pE3-Aβ. Several studies indicated that pE3-Aβ is toxic, prone to aggregation and serves as a seed of Aβ aggregation. The cyclisation of the glutamate residue is produced by glutaminyl cyclase, the pharmacological and genetic reductions of which significantly alleviate AD-related anatomical lesions and cognitive defects in mice models. The cyclisation of the glutamate in position 3 requires prior removal of the Aβ N-terminal aspartyl residue to allow subsequent biotransformation. The enzyme responsible for this rate-limiting catalytic step and its relevance as a putative trigger of AD pathology remained yet to be established. Here, we identify aminopeptidase A as the main exopeptidase involved in the N-terminal truncation of Aβ and document its key contribution to AD-related anatomical and behavioral defects. First, we show by mass spectrometry that human recombinant aminopeptidase A (APA) truncates synthetic Aβ1-40 to yield Aβ2-40. We demonstrate that the pharmacological blockade of APA with its selective inhibitor RB150 restores the density of mature spines and significantly reduced filopodia-like processes in hippocampal organotypic slices cultures virally transduced with the Swedish mutated Aβ-precursor protein (βAPP). Pharmacological reduction of APA activity and lowering of its expression by shRNA affect pE3-42Aβ- and Aβ1-42-positive plaques and expressions in 3xTg-AD mice brains. Further, we show that both APA inhibitors and shRNA partly alleviate learning and memory deficits observed in 3xTg-AD mice. Importantly, we demonstrate that, concomitantly to the occurrence of pE3-42Aβ-positive plaques, APA activity is augmented at early Braak stages in sporadic AD brains. Overall, our data indicate that APA is a key enzyme involved in Aβ N-terminal truncation and suggest the potential benefit of targeting this proteolytic activity to interfere with AD pathology. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00401-021-02308-0.

The histopathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by neuronal loss, neurofibrillary tangles, and senile plaque formation. The latter results from an exacerbated production (familial AD cases) or altered degradation (sporadic cases) of 40/42-amino acid–long β-amyloid peptides (Aβ peptides) that are produced by sequential cleavages of Aβ precursor protein (βAPP) by β- and γ-secretases. The amyloid cascade hypothesis proposes a key role for the full-length Aβ42 and the Aβ40/42 ratio in AD etiology, in which soluble Aβ oligomers lead to neurotoxicity, tau hyperphosphorylation, aggregation, and, ultimately, cognitive defects. However, following this postulate, during the last decade, several clinical approaches aimed at decreasing full-length Aβ42 production or neutralizing it by immunotherapy have failed to reduce or even stabilize AD-related decline. Thus, the Aβ peptide (Aβ40/42)-centric hypothesis is probably a simplified view of a much more complex situation involving a multiplicity of APP fragments and Aβ catabolites. Indeed, biochemical analyses of AD brain deposits and fluids have unraveled an Aβ peptidome consisting of additional Aβ-related species. Such Aβ catabolites could be due to either primary enzymatic cleavages of βAPP or secondary processing of Aβ itself by exopeptidases. Here, we review the diversity of N- and C-terminally truncated Aβ peptides and their biosynthesis and outline their potential function/toxicity. We also highlight their potential as new pharmaceutical targets and biomarkers.

Neuronal network dysfunction and cognitive decline constitute the most prominent features of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), although mechanisms causing such impairments are yet to be determined. Here we report that virus-mediated delivery of the active spliced transcription factor X-Box binding protein 1s (XBP1s) in the hippocampus rescued spine density, synaptic plasticity and memory function in a mouse model of AD. XBP1s transcriptionally activated Kalirin-7 (Kal7), a protein that controls synaptic plasticity. In addition, we found reduced levels of Kal7 in primary neurons exposed to Aβ oligomers, transgenic mouse models and human AD brains. Short hairpin RNA-mediated knockdown of Kal7 altered synaptic plasticity and memory formation in naive mice. Further, reduction of endogenous Kal7 compromised the beneficial effects of XBP1s in Alzheimer’s model. Hence, our findings reveal that XBP1s is neuroprotective through a mechanism that engages Kal7 pathway with therapeutic implications in AD pathology.

The aspartyl protease β-site APP cleaving enzyme, BACE1, is the rate-limiting enzyme involved in the production of amyloid-β peptide, which accumulates in both sporadic and familial cases of Alzheimer’s disease and is at the center of gravity of the amyloid cascade hypothesis. In this context, unravelling the molecular mechanisms controlling BACE1 expression and activity in both physiological and pathological conditions remains of major importance. We previously demonstrated that Aβ controlled BACE1 transcription in an NFκB-dependent manner. Here, we delineate an additional cellular pathway by which natural and synthetic Aβ42 oligomers enhance active X-box binding protein XBP-1s. XBP-1s lowers BACE1 expression and activity indirectly, via the up-regulation of the ubiquitin-ligase HRD1 that acts as an endogenous down-regulator of BACE1. Thus, we delineate a novel pathway by which cells could compensate for Aβ42 oligomers production and thus, associated toxicity, by triggering a compensatory mechanism aimed at lowering BACE-1-mediated Aβ production by a molecular cascade involving XBP-1s and HRD1. It thus identifies HRD1 as a potential target for a novel Aβ-centered therapeutic strategy.

International audience; The γ-secretase is a multiprotein complex responsible for the ultimate cut yielding amyloid-β peptides and their N-terminal truncated species. This complex is composed of at least four distinct entities, namely presenilin-1 (PS1) or PS2, anterior pharynx defective-1, presenilin enhancer-2 (Pen-2) and nicastrin. Very few studies examined the transcriptional regulation of this complex, and more precisely, whether some of the members functionally interact. Here, we summarize our previous data documenting the fact that Pen-2 controls cell death in a p53-dependent manner and our recent demonstration of a pivotal role of p53 as a regulator of Pen-2 transcription. As PS trigger amyloid precursor protein intracellular domain-dependent regulation of p53, our studies delineate a feedback control mechanism by which PS and Pen-2 functionally interact in a p53-dependent manner.

We recently demonstrated that the presenilin-dependent gamma-secretase complex regulates the expression and activity of neprilysin, one of the main enzymes that degrade the amyloid beta-peptide (Abeta) which accumulates in Alzheimer's disease. Here, we examined the influence of endogenous nicastrin (NCT), a member of the gamma-secretase complex, on neprilysin physiology. We show that nicastrin deficiency drastically lowers neprilysin expression, membrane-bound activity and mRNA levels, but it did not modulate the expression of two other putative Abeta-cleaving enzymes, endothelin-converting enzyme and insulin-degrading enzyme. Furthermore, we show that nicastrin restores neprilysin activity and expression in nicastrin-deficient, but not presenilin-deficient fibroblasts, indicating that the control of neprilysin necessitates the complete gamma-secretase complex harbouring its four reported components. Finally, we show that NCT expression peaked 24 h after NCT cDNA transfection of wild-type and NCT-/- fibroblasts, while neprilysin expression drastically increased only after 36 h and was maximal at 48 h. This delayed effect on neprilysin expression correlates well with our demonstration of an indirect gamma-secretase-dependent modulation of neprilysin at its transcriptional level.

Triple-transgenic mice (3xTgAD) overexpressing Swedish-mutated β-amyloiḍprecursoṛprotein (βAPPswe), P310L-Tau (TauP301L) and physiological levels of M146V-presenilin-1 (PS1M146V) display extracellular amyloid-β peptides (Aβ) deposits and Tau tangles. More disputed is the observation that these mice accumulate intraneuronal Aβ that has been linked to synaptic dysfunction and cognitive deficits. Here, we provide immunohistological, genetic and pharmacological evidences for early, age-dependent and hippocampus-specific accumulation of the β-secretase-derived βAPP fragment C99 that is observed in 3 month-old mice and enhanced by pharmacological blockade of γ-secretase. Notably, intracellular Aβ is only detectable several months later and appears, as is the case for C99, in enlarged cathepsin B-positive structures, while extracellular Aβ deposits are detected around 12 months of age and beyond. Early C99 production occurs mainly in the CA1/subicular interchange area of the hippocampus corresponding to the first region exhibiting plaques and tangles in old mice. The examination of two other mice models harboring mutated βAPP but endogenous wild type PS1 and Tau protein (TgCRND8 or Tg2576) indicate that C99 levels are largely higher in all animal models than in their respective control mice. Furthermore, the comparison of 3xTgAD mice with double transgenic mice bearing the βAPPswe and TauP301L mutations but expressing endogenous PS1 (2xTgAD) demonstrate that C99 accumulation could not be accounted for by a loss of function triggered by PS1 mutation that would have prevented C99 secondary cleavage by γ-secretase. Altogether, our work identifies C99 as the earliest βAPP catabolite and main contributor to the intracellular βAPP-related immunoreactivity in 3xTgAD mice, suggesting its implication as an initiator of the neurodegenerative process and cognitive alterations taking place in this mice model.

International audience; Proteolytic degradation has emerged as a key pathway involved in controlling levels of the Alzheimer's disease (AD)-associated amyloid-β peptides (Aβ) in the brain. The ectopeptidase, neprilysin (NEP), has been reported as the major Aβ-degrading enzyme in mice and human brains. We have previously shown that NEP expression and activity are regulated by AICD, the intracellular domain of the amyloid-β protein precursor (AβPP) generated by γ-secretase. Thus, NEP transcription, expression, and enzymatic activity are dramatically reduced in fibroblasts devoid of AβPP (the precursor of AICD) or lacking both presenilin (PS) 1 and 2 (two parent proteins contributing to AICD formation). We demonstrate here that NEP expression and activity are influenced by a number of cell passages and density, and we confirm a drastic reduction of NEP expression and activity in AβPP and PS null fibroblasts examined at similar passages and cell densities. Furthermore, Imatinib (Gleevec), a known tyrosine kinase inhibitor was recently shown to elevate AICD in H4 human neuroglioma cells, and this was accompanied by concomitant increases of NEP protein, mRNA levels, and activity. However, the demonstration of a causal link between Imatinib and AICD levels was still lacking. We show here an Imatinib-dependent effect on NEP expression and activity in murine fibroblasts and establish that Imatinib-induced modulation of NEP was abolished by the depletion of AβPP or its homologues APLP1 and APLP2, thereby confirming that Imatinib-mediated control of NEP could indeed be accounted for its effect on AICD.

International audience; Amyloid beta-peptides is the generic term for a set of hydrophobic peptides that accumulate in Alzheimer's disease (AD)-affected brains. These amyloid-beta peptide fragments are mainly generated by an enzymatic machinery referred to as gamma-secretase complex that is built up by the association of four distinct proteins, namely presenilin 1 (PS1) or PS2, nicastrin, Aph-1 and Pen-2. AD is also characterized by exacerbated cell death that appears linked to the tumor suppressor p53. Interestingly, all members of the gamma-secretase complex control p53-dependent cell death. On the other hand, p53 appears to be able to regulate directly or indirectly the expression and transcription of PS1, PS2 and Pen-2. This review will focus on the functional cross-talk between the members of the gamma-secretase complex and p53 and will discuss the putative implication of this oncogene in AD pathology.

International audience; The senile plaques found in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease are mainly due to the accumulation of amyloid beta-peptides (A beta) that are liberated by gamma-secretase, a high molecular weight complex including presenilins, PEN-2, APH-1 and nicastrin. The depletion of each of these proteins disrupts the complex assembly into a functional protease. Here, we describe another level of regulation of this multimeric protease. The depletion of both presenilins drastically reduces Pen2 mRNA levels and its promoter transactivation. Furthermore, overexpression of presenilin-1 lowers Pen2 promoter transactivation, a phenotype abolished by a double mutation known to prevent presenilin-dependent gamma-secretase activity. PEN-2 expression is decreased by depletion of beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) and increased by the APP intracellular domain (AICD). We show that AICD and APP complement for Pen2 mRNA levels in APP/APLP1-2 knockout fibroblasts. Interestingly, overexpression of presenilin-2 greatly increases Pen2 promoter transactivation. The opposite effect triggered by both presenilins was reminiscent of our previous study, which showed that these two proteins elicit antagonistic effects on p53. Therefore, we examined the contribution of p53 on Pen2 transcription. Pen2 promoter transactivation, and Pen2 mRNA and protein levels were drastically reduced in p53(-/-) fibroblasts. Furthermore, PEN-2 expression could be rescued by p53 complementation in p53- and APP-deficient cells. Interestingly, PEN-2 expression was also reduced in p53-deficient mouse brain. Overall, our study describes a p53-dependent regulation of PEN-2 expression by other members of the gamma-secretase complex, namely presenilins.

International audience; Nicastrin (NCT) is a component of the presenilin (PS)-dependent gamma-secretase complexes that liberate amyloid beta-peptides from the beta-Amyloid Precursor Protein. Several lines of evidence indicate that the members of these complexes could also contribute to the control of cell death. Here we show that over-expression of NCT increases the viability of human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells and decreases staurosporine (STS)- and thapsigargin (TPS)-induced caspase-3 activation in various cell lines from human and neuronal origins by Akt-dependent pathway. NCT lowers p53 expression, transcriptional activity and promoter transactivation and reduces p53 phosphorylation. NCT-associated protection against STS-stimulated cell death was completely abolished by p53 deficiency. Conversely, the depletion of NCT drastically enhances STS-induced caspase-3 activation and p53 pathway and favored p53 nuclear translocation. We examined whether NCT protective function depends on PS-dependent gamma-secretase activity. First, a 29-amino acid deletion known to reduce NCT-dependent amyloid beta-peptide production did not affect NCT-associated protective phenotype. Second, NCT still reduces STS-induced caspase-3 activation in fibroblasts lacking PS1 and PS2. Third, the gamma-secretase inhibitor DFK167 did not affect NCT-mediated reduction of p53 activity. Altogether, our study indicates that NCT controls cell death via phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt and p53-dependent pathways and that this function remains independent of the activity and molecular integrity of the gamma-secretase complexes.

The presenilin (PS)-dependent gamma-secretase activity refers to a high molecular mass-complex including, besides PS1 or PS2, three other proteins recently identified, namely nicastrin, Aph-1, and Pen-2. This proteolytic complex has been shown to contribute to both gamma- and epsilon-cleavages of the beta-amyloid precursor protein (betaAPP), thereby generating beta-amyloid peptides (Abeta) and the APP intracellular domain (AICD), respectively. TMP21, a member of the p24 cargo protein family, was recently shown to interact with PS complexes. Interestingly, TMP21 modulates gamma-secretase-mediated Abeta production but does not regulate epsilon-secretase-derived AICD formation [F. Chen, H. Hasegawa, G. Schmitt-ulms, T. Kawarai, C. Bohm, T. Katayama, Y. Gu, N. Sanjo, M. Glista, E. Rogaeva, Y. Wakutami, R. Pardossi-Piquard, X. Ruan, A. Tandon, F. Checler, P. Marambaud, K. Hansen, D. Westaway, P. St. George-Hyslop, P. Fraser, TMP21 is a presenilin complex component that modulates gamma- but not epsilon-secretase activities, Nature 440 (2006) 1208-1212]. Here we investigate the functional incidence of the over-expression or depletion of TMP21 on both intracellular and secreted Abeta recoveries and AICD-associated phenotypes. First we confirm that TMP21 depletion yields increased levels of secreted Abeta40. However, we demonstrate that both staurosporine-stimulated caspase-3 activation, p53 and neprilysin expression and activity were not affected by TMP21 over-expression or depletion. Overall, our functional data further reinforce the view that TMP21 behaves as a regulator of gamma- but not epsilon-cleavages generated by PS-dependent gamma-secretase complex.

We recently established that neprilysin (NEP), one of the putative amyloid β-peptide (Aβ)-degrading enzymes, is transcriptionally upregulated by AICDs, the C-terminal fragments of the β-amyloid precursor protein (βAPP/APLP) that are generated by presenilin (PS)-dependent γ- and ɛ-secretase activities (Pardossi-Piquard et al., 2005). Chen and Selkoe now report lack of evidence of NEP upregulation by PS-dependent γ-secretase. To explore the reasons for this difference, we have repeated several experiments, conducted new experiments, and carefully examined the data presented by Chen and Selkoe.

The presenilin-dependent gamma-secretase activity, which is responsible for the generation of amyloid beta-peptide, is a high molecular weight complex composed of at least four components, namely, presenilin-1 (or presenilin-2), nicastrin, Aph-1, and Pen-2. Previous data indicated that presenilins, which are thought to harbor the catalytic core of the complex, also control p53-dependent cell death. Whether the other components of the gamma-secretase complex could also modulate the cell death process in mammalian neurons remained to be established. Here, we examined the putative contribution of Aph-1 and Pen-2 in the control of apoptosis in TSM1 cells from a neuronal origin. We show by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling and DNA fragmentation analyses that the overexpression of Aph-1a, Aph-1b, or Pen-2 drastically lowered staurosporine-induced cellular toxicity. In support of an apoptosis rather than necrosis process, Aph-1 and Pen-2 also lower staurosporine- and etoposide-induced caspase-3 expression and diminished caspase-3 activity and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inactivation. The Aph-1 and Pen-2 anti-apoptotic phenotype was associated with a drastic reduction of p53 expression and activity and lowered p53 mRNA transcription. Furthermore, the Aph-1- and Pen-2-associated reduction of staurosporine-induced caspase-3 activation was fully abolished by p53 deficiency. Conversely, Aph-1a, Aph-1b, and Pen-2 gene inactivation increases both caspase-3 activity and p53 mRNA levels. Finally, we show that Aph-1 and Pen-2 did not trigger an anti-apoptotic response in cells devoid of presenilins or nicastrin, whereas the protective response was still observed in fibroblasts devoid of beta-amyloid precursor protein and amyloid precursor protein like-protein 2. Furthermore, Aph-1- and Pen-2-associated protection against staurosporine-induced caspase-3 activation was not affected by the gamma-secretase inhibitors N-[N-(3,5-difluorophenacetyl)-l-alanyl]-S-phenylglycine t-butyl ester and difluoromethylketone. Altogether, our study indicates that Aph-1 and Pen-2 trigger an anti-apoptotic response by lowering p53-dependent control of caspase-3. Our work also demonstrates that this phenotype is strictly dependent on the molecular integrity of the gamma-secretase complex but remains independent of the gamma-secretase catalytic activity.

The presenilin-dependent γ-secretase complex is mainly composed of four distinct proteins, namely presenilin 1 or presenilin 2, nicastrin, anterior pharynx defective-1 (Aph-1) and presenilin enhancer (Pen-2). The mechanisms by which the complex is assembled, how its stochiometry is controlled and how its catalytic activity is regulated are poorly understood. Recent studies indicated that Aph-1 and Pen-2 undergo proteolysis by the proteasome. We have examined the susceptibility of endogenous and overexpressed Aph-1a and Pen-2 to proteolysis by endogenous and purified proteasome as well as by recombinant caspases. We show that endogenous Aph-1a and Pen-2 resist proteolysis by caspases and by the proteasome. Furthermore, we show that unexpected interference of proteasome inhibitors with the cmv promoter region driving expression of Aph-1a and Pen-2 led to artifactual enhancement of overexpressed Aph-1a and Pen-2-like immunoreactivities but that these proteins also resist to in vitro degradation by endogenous and purified proteasome.

PS (presenilin)-dependent γ-secretase occurs as a high-molecular-mass complex composed of either PS1 or PS2 associated with Nct (nicastrin), PEN2 (presenilin enhancer 2 homologue) and APH1 (anterior pharynx defective 1 homologue). Numerous reports have documented the very complicated physical and functional cross-talk between these proteins that ultimately governs the biological activity of the γ-secretase, but very few studies examined the fate of the components of the complex. We show that, in both HEK-293 cells and the TSM1 neuronal cell line, the immunoreactivities of overexpressed myc-tagged-APH1a and -PEN2 were enhanced by the proteasome inhibitors ZIE and lactacystin, whereas a broad range of protease inhibitors had no effect. By contrast, proteasome inhibitors were totally unable to affect the cellular expression of endogenous APH1aL and PEN2 in HEK-293 cells, TSM1 and primary cultured cortical neurons. To explain this apparent discrepancy, we examined the degradation of myc-tagged-APH1a and -PEN2, in vitro, by cell extracts containing endogenous proteasome and by purified 20S proteasome. Strikingly, myc-tagged-APH1a and -PEN2 resist proteolysis by endogenous proteasome and purified 20S proteasome. We also show that endogenous PEN2 expression was drastically higher in wild-type than in PS- and Nct-deficient fibroblasts and was enhanced by proteasome inhibitors only in the two deficient cell systems. However, here again, purified 20S proteasome appeared unable to cleave endogenous PEN2 present in PS-deficient fibroblasts. The levels of endogenous APH1aL-like immunoreactivity were not modified by proteasome inhibitors and were unaffected by PS deficiency. Altogether, our results indicate that endogenous PEN2 and APH1aL do not undergo proteasomal degradation under physiological conditions in HEK-293 cells, TSM1 cells and fibroblasts and that the clearance of PEN2 in PS- and Nct-deficient fibroblasts is not mediated by 20S proteasome. Whether the 26S proteasome participates to PEN2 proteolysis in deficient fibroblasts remains to be established.