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Humans carry up to 200 bacterial species in the gastrointestinal tract. Important contribution of these genes is in carbohydrate degradation. The main task of the gut microbiota is digestion of food. The dominant gut bacteria are degradates of complex polysaccharides and releasing SCFA which are the sources for energy, cholesterol synthesis and gluconeogenesis. The mutual interaction of gut microbiota and host immune system is necessary for maintaining their symbiotic relationship. Microbial compositions differ in different metabolic conditions. Firmicutes are dominant in obese subjects while Akkermansia muciniphila which protect against adiposity, low grade inflammation in adipose tissue and insulin resistance is reduced in this population. Intestinal dysbiosis is associated with insulin resistance and diabetes type 2. Betaproteobacteria was highly enriched in diabetic population. The ratio of Bacteriodetes to Firmicutes and the Bacteroides-Prevotella group to the C.coccoides-E.rectale group are reduced. Gastrointestinal rearrangements after RYGB promote substantial changes on the gut microbiota. Gut microbota manipulation in favor of Akkermansia spp. may contribute in antidiabetic effect of metformin and could be potential treatment for T2D. Changes in gut bacteria after RYGB (Roux-en-Y gastric bypass) alter the body weight independent of other effects of bariatric/metabolic surgery. Mechanism for diabetes remission after bariatric surgery is still not clear. Besides change in incretin secretion and bile acid recirculation, potential mechanism is change of gut microbiota content. Possible improvement of glucose regulation following bariatric surgery may be related to butyrate and propionate production by some bacteria species, which influence glucose metabolism independently of bile acids recirculation.

We explored the effect of therapeutic glucoregulation on the blood levels of proinflammatory T helper (Th)17 cytokines interleukin (IL)-17 and IL-23, and Th1 cytokines interferon (IFN)-γ and IL-12 in newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes patients. The investigated group consisted of 23 subjects (17 men and 6 women, age 26-64). The cytokine serum levels, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) as a marker of glucoregulation, homeostasis model assessment index as a measure of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), and body mass index (BMI) were determined before and after 12 weeks of therapy consisting of standard lifestyle modification and metformin (1000 mg b.i.d.). The levels of Th17 and Th1 cytokines before treatment did not correlate with age, BMI or HOMA-IR. The patients with poor glucoregulation (HbA1c>7%, n=12), compared to those with good glucoregulation (HbA1c≤7%, n=11), had higher serum levels of Th17 and Th1 cytokines, but only the differences in IL-17 (median 21.2 pg/ml vs. 4.8 pg/ml) and IFN-γ 5 (0.6 pg/ml vs. 27.7 pg/ml) reached statistical significance (p=0.003 and p=0.012, respectively). The reduction of HbA1c values (from 8.6 to 5.9%, p=0.000) observed upon treatment in patients with poor glucoregulation was associated with a significant decrease in the concentration of IL-17 (from 21.2 to 12.9 pg/ml, p=0.020), but not IFN-γ (50.6 vs. 52.3, p=0.349). These data indicate that therapeutic improvement of glucoregulation might contribute to a reduction of IL-17 levels in newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes patients.

Background/Aim. Diabetes mellitus (DM) is considered to be an epidemic, chronic and progressive disease. The treatment of DM reqiures substantial effort from both the diabetes treatment team and a patient. Patient education is one of the treatment elements. The most efficacious form and content of education has not yet been established. However, every DM education must include introduction to a substantial number of facts about diabetes. The aim of our study was to estimate the levels of DM knowledge and glycemic control in Serbian patients with DM type 2 as well as to estimate the effects of education using printed material on the levels of glycemic control and knowledge about DM. Also, the effects of education on glycemic control and the level of knowledge in differently treated patients were estimated. Methods. The patients with DM type 2 (n = 364), aged 40 to 65 years, from three regional health centers, were randomized for the study. After informed consent, patients filled out the questionnaire, and were checked for HbA1c and fasting blood glucose. Finally, booklet ?Healthy lifestyle with diabetes mellitus type 2? was given to them. The same procedure was repeated after 3, 6 and 18 months. Results. There was a significant improvement in HbA1c levels after 3 months (8.00 ? 1.66% vs 9.06 ? 2.23%, p < 0.01) and after 6 months (7.67 ? 1.75% vs 9.06 ? 2.23%, p < 0.01). There was no further improvement in HbA1c levels after 18 months (7.88 ? 1.46% vs 7.67 ? 1.75%, p > 0.05). There was a significant improvement in the average test score (percent of correct answers per test sheet) after three monts (64.6% vs 55.6%, p < 0.01). There were no further statistically significant changes in the general level of DM knowledge after 6 months (65.0 ? 32.5% vs 64.5 ? 33.7%, p > 0.05 ) and after 18 months ( 64.8 ? 32.7 vs 64.5 ? 33.7%, p > 0.05). There was a significant difference in educational intervention response in DM type 2 patients on different therapeutic regimens. Conclusion. Education with printed material led to improvement in glycemic control and level of DM knowledge in our patients. Education with printed material may be a useful adjunct to DM treatment and should be structured according to the treatment modality.

To compare the concentrations of cytokines belonging to Th17 axis (interleukin (IL)-17 and IL-23) and Th1 axis (IL-12 and interferon (IFN)-gamma) in obese and lean women, and to investigate their relationships with the proinflammatory adipokine leptin, proinflammatory cytokine macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) and anthropometric and metabolic parameters of obesity.Cross-sectional study.Twenty-six obese women (age 20-52 years, body mass index (BMI): 30-48 kg/m(2)) and 20 healthy lean women (age 23-46 years, BMI: 18-25 kg/m(2)).Plasma levels of cytokines and leptin, BMI, waist circumference (WC) and insulin resistance index HOMA (homeostatic model assessment).Blood concentrations of IL-17, IL-23, MIF and leptin, but not IL-12 or IFN-gamma, were higher in obese compared with lean women (P=0.002, 0.046, 0.006 and 0.002, respectively). There was a positive correlation between IL-17 and IL-23 (r(s)=0.530), which was at the border of statistical significance (P=0.065). Neither IL-17 nor IL-23 correlated with leptin or MIF, and there was no association between IL-17 and IL-23 levels with BMI, WC or HOMA index.Interleukin-23/IL-17 axis is stimulated in obese women independently of the increase in abdominal fat, insulin resistance, leptin and MIF levels.