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Objective: To describe the cardiovascular toxicity and pharmacokinetics of levetiracetam in overdose. Case Report: A 43-year-old female presented 8 h post ingestion of 60-80 g of levetiracetam with mild central nervous system depression, bradycardia, hypotension and oliguria. Her cardiovascular toxicity transiently responded to atropine and intravenous fluids. A bedside echocardiogram demonstrated normal left and right ventricular contractility. Despite her cardiovascular toxicity and oliguria, she had normal serial venous lactates and renal function; and made a complete recovery over 48 h. Her levetiracetam concentration was 463 mcg/ml 8 h post ingestion (therapeutic range 10-40 mcg/ml) and her concentration-time data best fitted a one-compartment model with first-order input and an elimination half-life of 10.4 h. Discussion: Levetiracetam in large ingestions appears to cause bradycardia and hypotension that is potentially responsive to atropine and intravenous fluids. Based on a normal echocardiogram, the mechanism for this effect may be levetiracetam acting at muscarinic receptors at high concentration. The pharmacokinetics of levetiracetam in overdose appeared to be similar to therapeutic levetiracetam dosing. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Background There is limited information on antivenom pharmacokinetics. This study aimed to investigate the pharmacokinetics of an Indian snake antivenom in humans with Russell’s viper bites. Methods/Principal Findings Patient data and serial blood samples were collected from patients with Russell’s viper (Daboia russelii) envenoming in Sri Lanka. All patients received Indian F(ab’)2 snake antivenom manufactured by VINS Bioproducts Ltd. Antivenom concentrations were measured with sandwich enzyme immunoassays. Timed antivenom concentrations were analysed using MONOLIXvs4.2. One, two and three compartment models with zero order input and first order elimination kinetics were assessed. Models were parameterized with clearance(CL), intercompartmental clearance(Q), central compartment volume(V) and peripheral compartment volume(VP). Between-subject-variability (BSV) on relative bioavailability (F) was included to account for dose variations. Covariates effects (age, sex, weight, antivenom batch, pre-antivenom concentrations) were explored by visual inspection and in model building. There were 75 patients, median age 57 years (40-70y) and 64 (85%) were male. 411 antivenom concentration data points were analysed. A two compartment model with zero order input, linear elimination kinetics and a combined error model best described the data. Inclusion of BSV on F and weight as a covariate on V improved the model. Inclusion of pre-antivenom concentrations or different batches on BSV of F did not. Final model parameter estimates were CL,0.078 Lh-1, V,2.2L, Q,0.178Lh-1 and VP,8.33L. The median half-life of distribution was 4.6h (10-90%iles:2.6-7.1h) and half-life of elimination, 140h (10th-90th percentilesx:95-223h). Conclusion Indian F(ab’)2 snake antivenom displayed biexponential disposition pharmacokinetics, with a rapid distribution half-life and more prolonged elimination half-life., Author Summary Snake envenoming is a neglected tropical disease that affects hundreds of thousands of people in the rural tropics. Antivenom is the main treatment for snake bites but there is limited information on the pharmacokinetics and appropriate dosing regimen. Most studies have been done in animals and dosing guidelines are based on arbitrary and often irreversible clinical signs. In this study we measured serial antivenom concentrations in patients with Russell’s viper envenoming given antivenom. Using this data we modelled the pharmacokinetics of antivenom in the population and showed that antivenom concentrations had a bi-exponential decay with an initial decrease over 12 hours and then a slow decrease over days. There was significant variability in the dose given which was not affected by the particular antivenom batch given. The presence of venom did not appear to modify the pharmacokinetics of antivenom. Understanding the time course of antivenom in patients with snake envenoming will provide a better basis for antivenom dosing.