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The absolute-scale electronic energetics of liquid water and aqueous solutions, both in the bulk and at associated interfaces, are the central determiners of water-based chemistry. However, such information is generally experimentally inaccessible. Here we demonstrate that a refined implementation of the liquid microjet photoelectron spectroscopy (PES) technique can be adopted to address this. Implementing concepts from condensed matter physics, we establish novel all-liquid-phase vacuum and equilibrated solution–metal-electrode Fermi level referencing procedures. This enables the precise and accurate determination of previously elusive water solvent and solute vertical ionization energies, VIEs. Notably, this includes quantification of solute-induced perturbations of water's electronic energetics and VIE definition on an absolute and universal chemical potential scale. Defining and applying these procedures over a broad range of ionization energies, we accurately and respectively determine the VIE and oxidative stability of liquid water as 11.33 ± 0.03 eV and 6.60 ± 0.08 eV with respect to its liquid-vacuum-interface potential and Fermi level. Combining our referencing schemes, we accurately determine the work function of liquid water as 4.73 ± 0.09 eV. Further, applying our novel approach to a pair of exemplary aqueous solutions, we extract absolute VIEs of aqueous iodide anions, reaffirm the robustness of liquid water's electronic structure to high bulk salt concentrations (2 M sodium iodide), and quantify reference-level dependent reductions of water's VIE and a 0.48 ± 0.13 eV contraction of the solution's work function upon partial hydration of a known surfactant (25 mM tetrabutylammonium iodide). Our combined experimental accomplishments mark a major advance in our ability to quantify electronic–structure interactions and chemical reactivity in liquid water, which now explicitly extends to the measurement of absolute-scale bulk and interfacial solution energetics, including those of relevance to aqueous electrochemical processes., A generalised liquid-phase photoelectron spectroscopy approach is reported, allowing accurate, absolute energy scale ionisation energies of liquid water and aqueous solutions, as well as liquid water's work function to be reported.

We describe a magnetic bottle time-of-flight electron spectrometer designed for time-resolved photoemission spectroscopy of a liquid microjet using extreme UV and X-ray radiation. The spectrometer can be easily reconfigured depending on experimental requirements and the energy range of interest. To improve the energy resolution at high electron kinetic energy, a retarding potential can be applied either via a stack of electrodes or retarding mesh grids, and a flight-tube extension can be attached to increase the flight time. A gated electron detector was developed to reject intense parasitic signal from light scattered off the surface of the cylindrically shaped liquid microjet. This detector features a two-stage multiplication with a microchannel plate plus a fast-response scintillator followed by an image-intensified photon detector. The performance of the spectrometer was tested at SPring-8 and SACLA, and time-resolved photoelectron spectra were measured for an ultrafast charge transfer to solvent reaction in an aqueous NaI solution with a 200 nm UV pump pulses from a table-top ultrafast laser and the 5.5 keV hard X-ray probe pulses from SACLA.

Physical chemistry, chemical physics 23(14), 8246 - 8260 (2021). doi:10.1039/D1CP00430A, We report on the effects of electron collision and indirect ionization processes, occurring at photoexcitation and electron kinetic energies well below 30 eV, on the photoemission spectra of liquid water. We show that the nascent photoelectron spectrum and, hence, the inferred electron binding energy can only be accurately determined if electron energies are large enough that cross sections for quasi-elastic scattering processes, such as vibrational excitation, are negligible. Otherwise, quasi-elastic scattering leads to strong, down-to-few-meV kinetic energy scattering losses from the direct photoelectron features, which manifest in severely distorted intrinsic photoelectron peak shapes. The associated cross-over point from predominant (known) electronically inelastic to quasi-elastic scattering seems to arise at surprisingly large electron kinetic energies, of approximately 10–14 eV. Concomitantly, we present evidence for the onset of indirect, autoionization phenomena (occurring via superexcited states) within a few eV of the primary and secondary ionization thresholds. These processes are inferred to compete with the direct ionization channels and primarily produce low-energy photoelectrons at photon and electron impact excitation energies below ∼15 eV. Our results highlight that vibrational inelastic electron scattering processes and neutral photoexcitation and autoionization channels become increasingly important when photon and electron kinetic energies are decreased towards the ionization threshold. Correspondingly, we show that for neat water and aqueous solutions, great care must be taken when quantitatively analyzing photoelectron spectra measured too close to the ionization threshold. Such care is essential for the accurate determination of solvent and solute ionization energies as well as photoelectron branching ratios and peak magnitudes., Published by RSC Publ., Cambridge

Liquid-jet photoelectron spectroscopy was applied to determine the first acid dissociation constant (pKa) of aqueous-phase glucose while simultaneously identifying the spectroscopic signature of the respective deprotonation site. Valence spectra from solutions at pH values below and above the first pKa reveal a change in glucose’s lowest ionization energy upon the deprotonation of neutral glucose and the subsequent emergence of its anionic counterpart. Site-specific insights into the solution-pH-dependent molecular structure changes are also shown to be accessible via C 1s photoelectron spectroscopy. The spectra reveal a considerably lower C 1s binding energy of the carbon site associated with the deprotonated hydroxyl group. The occurrence of photoelectron spectral fingerprints of cyclic and linear glucose prior to and upon deprotonation are also discussed. The experimental data are interpreted with the aid of electronic structure calculations. Our findings highlight the potential of liquid-jet photoelectron spectroscopy to act as a site-selective probe of the molecular structures that underpin the acid–base chemistry of polyprotic systems with relevance to environmental chemistry and biochemistry.

Photoelectron angular distributions PADs from aqueous solution surfaces reveal details of the spatial arrangement of solute molecules at the solution gas phase interface. This is demonstrated here for mixed equimolar aqueous solutions of dimethyl sulfoxide dimethyl sulfone CH3 2SO CH3 2SO2 and dimethyl sulfoxide dimethyl sulfite CH3 2SO CH3 2SO3 , all molecules having a propensity to reside near the solution surface. Although the surface active molecules coexist at the surface, CH3 2SO2 yields a more intense sulfur 2p surface photoelectron signal than CH3 2SO, and for CH3 2SO3, the effect is even larger. To understand this behavior, we have for one of the solutions mixtures, CH3 2SO CH3 2SO2, performed PAD measurements. Surprisingly, both molecules exhibit almost identical PADs, implying that the emitted photoelectrons have experienced a similar limited amount of scattering interactions. Hence, the molecules reside at the same distance with respect to the solution vacuum interface rather than CH3 2SO2 being closer to the surface than CH3 2SO, as one may have assumed based on the relative photoelectron signal intensities. Instead, the relative surface and bulk concentrations of the two compounds differ. We also report S 2p photoelectron spectra from single component dimethyl sulfide, CH3 2S, aqueous solutions measured at a single detection angle. The exceptionally large surface propensity of CH3 2S is recognized by a narrow, gas phase like photoelectron spectrum, revealing that CH3 2S experiences very few hydration interactions. Experimentally observed trends in surface activity for the different molecules, which are complemented here by molecular dynamics simulations, agree with findings obtained with other surface sensitive techniques. New information on the surface structure of mixed solutions is uniquely obtained from the anisotropic angular distributions of the photoelectrons

Nanostructured silicon (N-Si) was prepared by anodic electroetching of p-type silicon wafers. The obtained magnetic particles were separated by a permanent neodymium magnet as a magnetic nanostructured silicon (mN-Si). The N-Si and mN-Si exhibited different magnetic properties: the N-Si exhibited ferromagnetic-like behaviour, whereas the mN-Si exhibited superparamagnetic-like behaviour.

L-edge soft X-ray spectroscopy has been proven to be a powerful tool to unravel the peculiarities of electronic structure of transition metal compounds in solution. However, the X-ray absorption spectrum is often probed in the total or partial fluorescence yield modes, what leads to inherent distortions with respect to the true transmission spectrum. In the present work, we combine photon- and electron-yield experimental techniques with multi-reference first principles calculations. Exemplified for the prototypical FeCl2 aqueous solution we demonstrate that the partial yield arising from the Fe3s → 2p relaxation is a more reliable probe of the absorption spectrum than the Fe3d → 2p one. For the bonding-relevant 3d → 2p channel we further provide the basis for the joint analysis of resonant photoelectron and inelastic X-ray scattering spectra. Establishing the common energy reference allows to assign both spectra using the complementary information provided through electron-out and photon-out events.

The charge-carrier dynamics of anatase TiO2 nanoparticles in an aqueous solution were studied by femtosecond time-resolved X-ray absorption spectroscopy using an X-ray free electron laser in combination with a synchronized ultraviolet femtosecond laser (268 nm). Using an arrival time monitor for the X-ray pulses, we obtained a temporal resolution of 170 fs. The transient X-ray absorption spectra revealed an ultrafast Ti K-edge shift and a subsequent growth of a pre-edge structure. The edge shift occurred in ca. 100 fs and is ascribed to reduction of Ti by localization of generated conduction band electrons into shallow traps of self-trapped polarons or deep traps at penta-coordinate Ti sites. Growth of the pre-edge feature and reduction of the above-edge peak intensity occur with similar time constants of 300–400 fs, which we assign to the structural distortion dynamics near the surface., 光触媒ナノ粒子における光照射後10兆分の1秒での電子の動きをX線自由電子レーザーで観測. 京都大学プレスリリース. 2017-07-06.

The nonradiative dark channels in the L-edge fluorescence spectra from transition-metal aqueous solution identify the ultrafast charge-transfer processes playing an important role in many biological and chemical systems. Yet, the exact origin of such spectral dips with respect to the X-ray transmission spectrum has remained unclear. In the present study we explore the nature of the underlying decay mechanism of 2p core-excited Co(2+) in water by probing the nonradiative Auger-type electron emission channel using photoelectron spectroscopy from a liquid microjet. Our measurements demonstrate unequivocally that metal-to-water charge transfer quenches fluorescence and will inevitably lead to a dip in the total-fluorescence-yield X-ray absorption spectrum. This is directly revealed from the resonant enhancement of valence signal intensity arising from the interference of two identical final states created by a direct and Auger-electron emission, respectively.

Recent advancement in quantitative liquid-jet photoelectron spectroscopy enables the accurate determination of the absolute-scale electronic energetics of liquids and species in solution. Our major objective is the determination of the absolute lowest-ionization energy of liquid water which is found to vary upon solute addition, and depends on the solute concentration. We discuss two prototypical aqueous salt solutions, NaI(aq) and tetrabutylammonium iodide, TBAI(aq), with the latter being a strong surfactant. Considerably different behavior is revealed: In the NaI(aq) solutions, water's 1b1 energy increases by 300 meV upon increasing the concentration near-saturation concentrations, whereas for TBAI the energy decreases by about 0.7 eV upon formation of a surface layer. The solute-induced effects on the solute binding energies are quantified as well, as inferred from concentration-dependent energy shifts of the I- 5p peak energy. For NaI(aq), an almost identical I- 5p shift is found as for the water 1b1 binding energy, with a larger shift occurring in the opposite direction for the TBAI(aq) solution. We show that this result in NaI(aq) can be primarily assigned to a change of water's electronic structure in the solution bulk. In contrast, apparent changes of the 1b1 energy for TBAI(aq) can be related to changes of the solution work function which could arise from surface molecular dipoles. Furthermore, for both of the solutions studied here, the measured water 1b1 binding energies can be correlated with the extensive solution molecular structure changes occurring at high salt concentrations, where in the case of NaI(aq), too few water molecules exist to hydrate individual ions and the solution adopts a crystalline-like phase. We also comment on the concentration-dependent shape of the 3a1 orbital of liquid water which is a sensitive signature of water-water hydrogen bond interactions., Comment: 28 pages, 12 figures, including Supporting Information