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To distinguish between respondents that have attended to/ignored an attribute in discrete choice experiments (DCE), Hess and Hensher (HH) apply the coefficient of variation of the conditional distribution, setting a threshold of 2 as a conservative rule of thumb. This paper develops an analytical framework (piecewise regression analysis — PWRA) to refine the HH approach, offering a flexible method to identify attribute non-attendance (ANA) in highly context-dependent DCE. It is empirically tested on a datasetusedtovalueagriculturalpublicgoods.Theresultssuggestthattheidentification of non-attendance and goodness of fit of different random parameter logit models that accommodate ANA are better when the framework developed in this research is applied. When comparing welfare estimates from the HH and PWRA approach, significant differences are observed. Consequently, the flexibility of the PWRA notably contributes to revealing context-specific ANA patterns that can help to provide more accurate welfare measures and therefore policy recommendations.

Using a dynamic transfer function model-based methodology, this study analyzes the joint influence of legislation changes, enforcement and compliance with driving regulations in terms of road fatalities in Spain during the 2005–2015 time period. Three robust econometric models demonstrate that two of the road safety law reforms recently implemented in Spain, the points-based driver's license and the toughening of the Penal Code, have had positive impacts, albeit with varying durations. Their impacts are also seen to have been reinforced by the application of a range of monitoring instruments to track compliance. The most effective of these include radar speed measuring devices, the mere presence of which has the desired deterrent effect irrespective of the positive proof that they might detect. However, lack of compliance with maximum alcohol limits seems to increase road fatalities, which suggests that a more complex preventive strategy needs to be developed through a combination of programmed actions. Lastly, the irreplaceable deterrence role of traffic police who enforce compliance with driving laws stands out, with the number of officers deployed being decisive.

No consensus has been reached on the effectiveness of World Heritage Sites (WHSs) in attracting tourism. This paper analyzes the impact of WHSs on tourist demand in Spain at a disaggregated level for all Spanish provinces (NUTS-3 regions), based on original panel data for 50 Spanish provinces for the 2000–2019 period. The results show a positive impact of WHSs on domestic and foreign tourism demand when considering all the provinces together and that the first WHSs (designated in the 1980s) have a greater tourism-enhancing effect (“first generation effect”). However, there are differences between Spanish inland and coastal provinces: only cultural WHSs have an impact on tourism in inland provinces, whereas, in coastal provinces, only natural WHSs have the power of tourism attraction.

Energy refurbishment of the housing stock is needed in order to reduce energy consumption and meet global climate goals. This is even more necessary for social housing built in Spain in the middle of the last century since its obsolete energy conditions lead to situations of indoor thermal discomfort and energy poverty. The present study carries out a life cycle assessment of the energy and economic performance of roofs after being retrofitted to become cool roofs for the promotion of social housing in Seville (Spain). Dynamic simulations are made in which the time dependent aging effect on the energy performance of the refurbished cool roofs is included for the whole lifespan. The influence of the time dependent aging effect on the results of the life cycle economic analysis is also assessed. A variety of scenarios are considered in order to account for the aging effect in the energy performance of the retrofitted cool roofs and its incidence while considering different energy prices and monetary discount rates on the life cycle assessment. This is made through a dynamic life cycle assessment in order to capture the impact of the aging dynamic behavior correctly. Results point out significant savings in the operational energy. However, important differences are found in the economic savings when the life cycle analysis is carried out since the source of energy and the efficiency of the equipment used for conditioning strongly impact the economic results.

Proyecto RTI2018-096725-B-100, financiado por: FEDER/Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación y Ministerio de Universidades – Agencia Estatal de Investigación Urban mining by recyclers represents a positive environmental impact as well as being part of the waste management chain. This paper analyzes the contribution of waste pickers in the city of Cuenca in Ecuador and the conditions of their activity. This research has a two-fold objective. First, it calculates the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions resulting from the substitution of virgin raw material in the production process by using recycled urban waste. The second objective is to conduct a socioeconomic analysis of the workers involved in the urban waste sector. Cuenca (Ecuador) is the main city used for this case study, thanks to the accessibility of a rich database built from the survey conducted by the NGO Alliance for Development. The information contained in this survey facilitates the identification of potential consumers of the waste industry. This study uses Clean Development Mechanism methodology. Finally, this work proposes a theoretical model for solid waste management, applied to the city, following the principles of the circular economy. Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación y Ministerio de Universidades RTI2018-096725-B-100

Algeria has enormous renewable energy potential. However, fossil fuels remain the main electricity generation source, and the country is the third largest CO2 emitter in Africa. Algeria is also particularly vulnerable to climate change. Therefore, a set of actions related to energy, forests, industry and waste sectors have been programmed, over the period 2015&ndash, 2030, and the government action program has given priority to promote renewable energy. In this sense, Algeria is committed to significantly promote investment in renewable energy, during the period 2020&ndash, 2030. Thus by 2030, renewable electricity production capacity will achieve 22,000 MW, representing 27% of total electricity generation. This paper analyzes the electricity generation measures implemented in Algeria to reach the required energy mix, the legislative framework, financial aid, the feed-in tariff system, the tax incentives, and the tender and auctions undertaken. The analyses reveal that, although the electricity price premium policy has not been revoked, the newly enacted tender scheme is designed to become the standard procedure for launching renewable energy projects in Algeria in the coming years.

A decoupling elasticity analysis and a two-level decomposition analysis of energy consumption in Colombia from 2000 to 2015 are developed. Firstly, the decoupling elasticity approach is used to analyse the importance of energy consumption changes in relation to the GDP changes. Then, a Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index analysis is carried out, decomposing the changes in energy consumption into four effects: Population, Activity, Structural and Intensity. Secondly, a decoupling index determines the main drivers of the inhibiting effect on energy consumption. The results show that the Population and Activity effects contribute to the country's increase of energy consumption, while the Intensity effect and, to a lesser extent, the Structure effect help to decrease it. From a sectoral perspective, variations in the energy consumption are mainly caused by the Transport and Industrial sectors. In the light of the results obtained, current decoupling-oriented measures are steps in the right direction, but more efforts should be made because until now they have not been effective. New policy recommendations are provided.

Successive changes to the legal framework affecting the Spanish Port System have been implemented over the last 25 years, forcing maritime operators to adapt to new rules. Based on a comprehensive literature review of studies addressing Spanish port devolution, our paper provides the most up-to-date evaluation of the impacts of these changes. Apart from the correlation between port activity and the economic cycle, an encouraging finding highlighted here is that legal reforms underpinned by broad political and port community consensus appear to be effective in attracting passenger and container traffic.

Cycling promotion has without doubt been the most intensive policy seen in Seville in the 21 st century as far as the use of public land is concerned. In the current context, economic tools need to be applied to rigorously assess the efficiency and economic rationality of cycling infrastructure investments. This article provides a Cost-Benefit Analysis to estimate the economic and social returns on investments from the construction of a bicycle lane network in the city of Seville (Spain). This kind of studies tries to contribute to mitigating the degree of conflict associated with a land policy that breaks with the traditional status quo. The case study is especially relevant due to the successful public policy implemented in recent years to transform the Seville's urban mobility model into a sustainable system. Based on fieldwork with two survey campaigns conducted among the different cyclist profiles (private bicycle users and public bicycle sharing system users), we analyze two major effects: modal change and changes in journey time. Our robust findings, subjected to a sensitivity analysis, point to the remarkable economic benefits of the bicycle promotion policy in Seville, with significant savings in travel times, vehicle use and infrastructure maintenance, health, traffic accidents, and air pollution for both cyclists and society as a whole.

Structural improvements in aircraft design, seeking to improve energy efficiency, can significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) by reducing reduced fuel consumption. This research reviews improvements with the introduction of a structural component known as "winglet;" these are positioned at the top of the aircraft wing, and increased Airbus Group A320 sales. Data used are taken from air traffic in Spain for the 2010–2014 period with projections being made for 2020. The results show that winglets reduce CO2 equivalent emissions associated with Spain's air transport for the 2015–2020 period between 66.29 and 59.56 Gg. depending on the scenario considered in 2020. Junta de Andalucía proyecto SEJ-132 Fundación Roger Torné, Universidad de Sevilla, Cátedra de Economía de la Energía y del Medio Ambiente 1394/0103 Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad de España ECO2014-56399-R Universidad Autónoma de Chile

The implementation of saving measures and energy efficiency entails the need to evaluate achievements in terms of energy saving and spending. This paper aims at analysing the effectiveness and economic efficiency of energy saving measures implemented in the Energy Savings and Efficiency Action Plan (2008-2012) (EAP4 +) in Spain for 2010. The lack of assessment related to energy savings achieved and public spending allocated by the EAP4 + justifies the need of this analysis. The results show that the transport and building sectors seem to be the most important, from the energy efficiency perspective. Although they did not reach the direct energy savings that were expected, there is scope for reduction with the appropriate energy measures. For the effectiveness indicator, the best performance are achieved by public service, agricultural and fisheries and building sectors, while in terms of energy efficiency per monetary unit, the best results are achieved by transport, industry and agriculture sectors. Authors conclude that it is necessary that central, regional and local administrations will get involved, in order to get better estimates of the energy savings achieved and thus to affect the design of future energy efficiency measures at the lowest possible cost to the citizens. Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad ECO2014-56399-R Ministerio de Educación de Chile Proyecto FONDECYT 1150025 Junta de Andalucía proyecto SEJ-132 Fundación Roger Torné, Universidad de Sevilla, Cátedra de Economía de la Energía y del Medio Ambiente

Wind energy is one of the renewable energies which have less adverse environmental impact and is becoming economically affordable long before several other renewable energies. Over recent years, substantial additions have been noted in wind energy capacity, although many differences can be observed between countries. Using the latest available data, this paper provides a concise analysis of wind energy and electricity consumption trends for the period 1990–2014 in a dual perspective, by principal world regions and by per capita gross national income levels in 2014. Electricity consumption has been divided into three types of energy: non-renewable, renewable excluding wind and wind energy. Annual rates of change, energy intensity, energy in per capita terms and some ratios have been analyzed. Notable regional differences and trends are observed in the studied variables. The first 15 European Union countries, other developed countries (ODC) and East Asian (EAS) and South Asian countries (SAS) are the regions which currently have the highest wind capacity. Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad ECO2014 – 56399-R

The paper conducts a comprehensive analysis of replacing residential use of wood burning stoves for heating with photovoltaic systems for the generation of electricity using storage batteries (PV + storage systems). The research focuses on the city of Temuco (Southern Chile) as a case study, since this city has a high use of firewood for heating (80% of households) and also because this city has been declared by authorities as an area saturated with suspended particles. The total cost corresponds to the acquisition of systems. The reduction of monetary value of the impact of polluting emissions, resulting from the combustion of firewood, on health and traffic accidents is calculated. The interactive tool GDB Compare has been used to calculate the impact of pollution on health both in terms of attributable deaths and disability-adjusted life years. The monetary value of the impact on health has been calculated using two alternative approaches: the value of statistical life and the human capital approach. To identify firewood use requirements, heating degree&ndash, days has been used for temperatures &le, 15 &deg, C and &le, 18 &deg, C. The emissions avoided calculations have been refined, including emissions associated with the manufacture and transport of systems through the life cycle analysis. For all scenarios, the main results show that the savings outweigh the costs.

This article examines the determinants of traffic generated by Spain's port authorities, using data from 2003 to 2012. The interest of the study lies on examining the impact of recent legislative measures that have implied an increasing liberalization of port charges. We find that port charges influence the amount of traffic that a port is able to generate, while traffic is also affected by geographical attributes, economic wealth, the extent of industrial activity and population. Our main result is that we find evidence that the legislation of 2003 did not have a significant impact on traffic while the impact of the legislation of 2010 seems to have been stronger. Political conflicts associated to a lack of consensus on the approbation of the 2003 legislation plus a clear decline in tariff freedom wiped out the inter-port competition slightly promoted by earlier laws, versus the 2010 reform featured by a strong political agreement and a flexible port charges framework.

Deficit irrigation (DI) is an agricultural practice in which the volume of irrigation water applied during the crop cycle is below the irrigation requirements for maximum production, the aim of which is to increase irrigation water productivity. Most research on this technique has focused on agronomic strategies while the economic and environmental consequences have received little attention. This study aims to shed some light on this matter and presents preliminary results regarding the implications of DI with respect to the sustainable use of water resources. The analysis is based on the DPSIR analytical framework (Driving force/Pressure/State/Impact/Response) and the microeconomics of DI. The case study focuses on intensive olive groves in the Guadalquivir river basin in Southern Spain (where olive cultivation accounts for 50% of the total irrigated area). The analysis shows that the widespread use of DI practices, which is the farmers’ response to a decreasing net water supply and falling farm incomes (driving force) in the context of a mature water economy, may help to break the DPSIR chain of causality, provided that there are restrictions on any expansion in irrigated area. They can, thus, play a role in achieving sustainable water use. Conversely, demand and supply (regulator) responses involving raising the price of water would lead to higher pressures on the resource and represent a negative driving force in our DPSIR model.

Transport activities are essential for economic and social development. Nevertheless, the transport sector has also shown the fastest growth in energy consumption in the European Union and its contribution to increasing greenhouse gas emissions merits the thorough attention of academics and policy makers. In this paper we analyze the relationship of economic growth and transport activities with transport final energy consumption. Energy Kuznets curves are estimated for a panel data set covering the EU27 countries in the period 1995–2009 for total transport energy use, household transport energy use, and productive transport energy use (all three in absolute and per capita energy use terms). The productive transport energy use and gross value added relationship are further considered as per hour worked. Finally, the control variables of energy prices and differences in the economic structures are tested. Empirical results show that the elasticity of transport energy use with respect to gross value added in per capita terms decreases from a threshold for the three transport energy consumption variables, but the turning point of improved environmental quality is not reached in any instance. Fundación Roger Torné, Universidad de Sevilla, Cátedra de Economía de la Energía y del Medio Ambiente 1394/0103 Junta de Andalucía proyecto SEJ-132 Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad ECO2014 – 56399-R Universidad de Coimbra, Proyecto de I + D EMSURE Energía y Movilidad para el Desarrollo Sostenible Regiones CENTRO 070224 FEDER 002004

This paper analyses the agricultural irrigation water use in a closed basin and the impacts on water productivity, and examines how they have affected the ‘closure’ process of the Guadalquivir river basin observed in recent decades. Following a period of expansion in irrigation, an administrative moratorium was declared on new irrigated areas in 2005. Since then, the main policy measure has been aimed at the modernisation of irrigated agriculture and the implementation of water conservation technologies. The analysis carried out in this paper shows a significant increase in mean irrigation water productivity in the pre-moratorium period (1989–2005), driven by the creation of new irrigated areas devoted to high value crops and with a dominant use of deficit irrigation strategies, while a second phase (2005–2012) is characterised by slower growth in terms of the mean productivity of irrigation water, primarily as a result of a significant reduction in water use per area. Findings show that productivity gains seem to have reached a ceiling in this river basin, since technological innovations (such as new crops, deficit irrigation, and water-saving and conservation technologies) have reached the limits of their capacity to create new value. Secretaría General de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación MINECOAGL2014 - 533417 - R

The residential energy sector is crucial to achieving CO2 emission reductions as it has an important energy-saving potential, and its environmental controls are difficult to displace to other countries. Using the latest available data, this short paper provides a concise analysis of residential energy consumption trends for the period 1993–2013 in a double perspective, by main world regions and by per capita gross national income levels in 2013. Residential energy has been divided into three types: non-renewable, direct renewable and indirect renewable. Annual rates of change, energy intensity, energy in per capita terms and some ratios have been analyzed. Notable regional differences and trends were observed in the studied variables. Therefore, different energy policies are recommended for the regions. Eastern and Southern Asian countries, the EU15 and other developed countries, are the regions which should make the greatest effort to reduce residential energy consumption. The promotion of direct and indirect renewable energies is recommended. Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad ECO2014 – 56399-R Fundación Roger Torné, Universidad de Sevilla, Cátedra de Economía de la Energía y del Medio Ambiente 1394/0103

Tourism is a major economic activity in the world. However, while tourism has a noticeable positive impact on economic development, it also contributes to environmental degradation by increasing energy consumption and therefore emissions. This paper analyzes the relationships between Hotel and Restaurant electricity consumption and tourism growth in 11 European Union countries for the period 2005–2012, for which there is sufficient data availability. Panel data techniques are used to test an electricity consumption function for this sector, which depends on tourism, its squared value, energy price, income and a climate variable. The results show that the Energy–Tourism Kuznets Curve hypothesis is not supported. Instead, an increasing relationship is observed between the Hotel and Restaurant sector electricity consumption and overnight stays. Results also show the effects of income and low temperatures in increasing electricity consumption, while prices have no effects. Energy efficiency measures and the adoption of renewable energy systems are recommended, with further investments therefore being necessary.

Due to the relevance of fossil fuels in the electricity matrix in Spain, the electrical sector plays a crucial role in mitigation policies such as carbon taxes. Increased prices of electricity can act as an incentive to enhance energy efficiency contributing to CO2 abatement. This paper evaluates a tax on electricity consumption (ECT). Focusing on energy efficiency commitments for Spain as established by EU Authorities for Horizon 2020 (H2020), a pricing model was created to assess economic impacts and its effectiveness in meeting this commitment. The analysis was performed by considering two scenarios, without (Scenario 1) and with (Scenario 2) tax recycling between the new tax and employer-paid social security benefits or contributing to price stability. In Scenario 2, the tax reform is achieved with tax recycling, offsetting the introduction of the ECT by reducing employer-paid social security payments. Two alternative restrictions on the tax reform were considered for the simulation of Scenario 2. In the first case, a restriction was imposed to ensure revenue neutrality (2-I). In the second case, the restriction ought to maintain price stability (2-II). Results from different scenarios offer an important range of possibilities for policy decisions. The results show that with a tax rate equal to 1%, there is a remarkable reduction of CO2 emissions from the electricity sector, and the same happens with other sectors that the literature identifies as drivers of such emissions. Junta de Andalucía proyecto SEJ-132 Fundación Roger Torné, Universidad de Sevilla, Cátedra de Economía de la Energía y del Medio Ambiente 1394/0103 Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad ECO2014 – 56399-R Ministerio de Educación de Chile Proyecto FONDECYT 1150025

The aim of this paper is the analysis of structural decomposition of changes in CO2 emissions in Spain by using an enhanced Structural Decomposition Analysis (SDA) supported by detailed Input–Output tables from the World Input–Output Database (2013) (WIOD) for the period 1995–2009. The decomposition of changes in CO2 emissions at sectoral level are broken down into six effects: carbonization, energy intensity, technology, structural demand, consumption pattern and scale. The results are interesting, not only for researchers but also for utility companies and policy-makers as soon as past and current political mitigation measures are analyzed in line with such results. The results allow us to conclude that the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol together with European Directives related to the promotion of RES seem to have a positive impact on CO2 emissions trends in Spain. After reviewing the current mitigation measures in Spain, one policy recommendation is suggested to avoid the rebound effect and to enhance the fight against Climate Change that is tax benefits for those companies that prove reductions in their energy intensity ratios. Junta de Andalucía SEJ 132 Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad ECO2014-56399-R Ministerio de Educación (Chile) 018/FONDECYT/16

This research paper analyzes the economics of deficit irrigation based on the use of subjective estimates of the crop yield–water relationship to determine water supply in irrigated olive groves. Interviewed farmers were asked to give three estimates for the yield-water relationship as a function of water supply (full irrigation, usual deficit irrigation and extreme deficit irrigation). Those responses are contrasted with the actual irrigation dose and the results appear to support the hypothesis that a majority of farmers use deficit irrigation as a strategy that maximizes the value of limited water input rather than the conventional microeconomic behavior of maximizing the return to land Secretaría General de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación MINECOAGL2014 - 533417 - R

Within the framework of the COP21 (Conference of the Parties) agreement, Algeria submitted its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution pledging to reduce carbon emissions by at least 7% by 2030. However, it will be a difficult task to reach this target as total final energy consumption has increased 32% from 2010 to 2014, with the major energy increases being related to electricity use in the residential sector. In this context, the relationship between residential electricity consumption and income is analyzed for Algeria in the period 1970&ndash, 2013, by estimating a residential electricity consumption per capita demand function which depends on GDP per capita, its squared and cubed terms, the electricity prices, and the goods and services imports. An extended Autoregressive Distributed Lag model (ARDL) was adopted to consider the different growth patterns registered in the evolution of GDP. The estimate results show that the relationships between electricity use and GDP (in per capita terms) present an inverted N-shape, with the second turning point having been reached. Therefore, promoting growth in Algeria could be convenient to reduce the electricity consumption, as a higher income level may allow the use of more efficient appliances. Additionally, renewable energies may be adequate to increase the electricity production in order to cover the increasing residential demand.