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The kapok (Ceibapentandra (L.) Gaertn) seed fibre is unicellular with length up to 35 mm, however, it is covered by a hydrophobic waxy layer that limits its application in paper production. In this study, the effect of various pulping methods namely mechanical, chemi-mechanical, semichemical and chemical pulping on kapok fibre properties was investigated. Each kapok pulp was then blended with the secondary fibre recovered from kraftliner board for handsheet making to examine their reinforcing ability on strength properties. The results showed that kapok mechanical pulps (with and without dewaxing (5% (v/v) diluted detergent) and chemimechanical pulp were unable to improve the strength properties of the handsheet. Kapok pulps chemically treated with 18–25% of sodium hydroxide gave a better effect on handsheet strength properties whilst fibre treated with 20% sodium hydroxide showing the highest increment. Although the reinforcing effect of the 4% native cooked starch was slightly higher than that of the 10% kapok pulp blended in recycled paper, the recycling potential of the latter was better as all strength properties retained unchanged after recycling. The findings indicated that kapok chemical pulp is a promising reinforcing fibre source with superior recycling potential.

In this work, Rhizophora spp. particleboard phantoms were made using SPI-based adhesives, modified with sodium hydroxide and itaconic acid polyamidoamine-epichlorohydrin (0, 5, 10, and 15 wt%). An X-ray computed tomography (CT) imaging system was used to ascertain the CT numbers and density distribution profiles of the particleboards. The SPI-based/NaOH/IA-PAE/Rhizophora spp. particleboard phantoms with 15 wt% IA-PAE addition level had the highest solid content, flexural strength, flexural modulus, and internal bonding strength of 36.06 ± 1.08%, 18.61 ± 0.38 Nmm−2, 7605.76 ± 0.89 Nmm−2, and 0.463 ± 0.053 Nmm−2, respectively. The moisture content, mass density, water absorption, and dimensional stability were 6.93 ± 0.27%, 0.962 ± 0.037 gcm−3, 22.36 ± 2.47%, and 10.90 ± 0.86%, respectively. The results revealed that the mass attenuation coefficients and effective atomic number values within the 16.59–25.26 keV photon energy region, were close to the calculated XCOM values in water, with a p-value of 0.077. Moreover, the CT images showed that the dissimilarities in the discrepancy of the profile density decreased as the IA-PAE concentrations increased. Therefore, these results support the appropriateness of the SPI-based/NaOH/IA-PAE/Rhizophora spp. particleboard with 15 wt% IA-PAE adhesive as a suitable tissue-equivalent phantom material for medical health applications.

The conventional wood-based composites contain an unreacted free formaldehyde, which causes a cancerous effect on humans. To overcome this problem, citric-acid-modified corn and oil palm starches are proposed as ecobinders for wood-based composites in this study. Experimental rubber-wood panels were made using the ecobinders. The panels were subjected to FT-IR, TGA, DSC, and X-ray diffraction analyses, and then their modulus of elasticity, modulus of rupture, bond strength, water absorption, and thickness swelling were determined experimentally. The results obtained are shown in figures and tables.

Malaysia produces a very high amount of oil palm biomass especially the oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) every year. The OPEFB in reality can be converted into value-added panels such as particleboard. The application may vary such as use for furniture, indoor building materials, door, window, floor, office partition and many more. Normally, the commercial particleboard were made from biomass with addition of formaldehyde based resins and it is harmful to the environment due to the formaldehyde released. In this study, the formaldehyde based resins were excluded and the binderless particleboard made from OPEFB with addition of natural binder such as corn, potato, tapioca and wheat starch were evaluated. These panels were manufactured with a target density of 0.8 g/cm3. The hot pressing temperature, hot pressing time, and pressing pressure used were 180 °C, 20 min, and 12 MPa respectively. From the results, the highest modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) were found to be the panel with the addition of potato starch as the natural binder (15.33 MPa, 2078 MPa) following by wheat (14.41 MPa, 1823 MPa), tapioca (14.18 MPa, 1771 MPa) and corn starch (12.59 MPa, 1335 MPa) respectively. The highest dimensional stability was also found to be the panel with the addition of potato starch with the lowest water absorption (69%) and thickness swelling (50%) value. Overall results has met the Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS) for type-8 and type-13 except for water absorption and thickness swelling. Therefore, particleboard made from OPEFB without using any synthetic resin was successfully made with the addition of natural binder such as potato, wheat, tapioca and corn starch and probably can be replace as a substitute for conventional particleboard in future.

Binderless particleboard panel made from sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) bagasse was manufactured by using waste product of sugarcane. The target density, pressing temperature, pressing time and pressing pressure used were 0.8 g/cm3, 180 °C, 10–40 min and 12 Mpa respectively. Modulus of rupture, internal bonding strength, thickness swelling and water absorption of the boards were evaluated based on Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS A 5908: Particleboards). From this research, the 30 min pressing time panel had the highest modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) values which were 15.16 Mpa and 1710 MPa respectively. Panels made from sugarcane bagasse with hot pressing time of 20, 30 and 40 min met the mechanical properties requirement stated in Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS). Nevertheless, the sastifactory results were obtained for water absorption (WA) and thickness swelling (TS) test ranged from 8% to 25%. Therefore, the binderless particleboard made from sugarcane bagasse waste were successfully manufactured and can be alternative and consideration for building material especially for indoor application.

Rhizophora spp. particleboard with the incorporation of lignin and soy flour as binders were fabricated and the influence of different percentages of lignin and soy flour (0%, 6% and 12%) on the physico-mechanical properties of the particleboard were studied. The samples were characterised by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and internal bonding. The results stipulated that the addition of binders in the fabrication of the particleboard did not change the functional groups according to the FTIR spectrum. For XRD, addition of binders did not reveal any major transformation within the composites. SEM and EDX analyses for all percentages of binders added showed no apparent disparity, however, it is important to note that the incorporation of binders allows better bonding between the molecules. In XRF analysis, lower percentage of chlorine in the adhesive-bonded samples may be advantageous in maintaining the natural properties of the particleboard. In internal bonding, increased internal bond strength in samples with binders may indicate better structural integrity and physico-mechanical strength. In conclusion, the incorporation of lignin and soy flour as binders may potentially strengthen and fortify the particleboard, thus, can be a reliable phantom in radiation dosimetry applications.

The aim of the current study was to biosynthesize the silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) from the bacterial strain of Bacillus cereus (ATCC 14579) extracellularly. When bacterial extract was challenged with 1 mM silver nitrate (AgNO3) the color of the extract changed into brown confirms the formation of nanoparticles. These nanoparticles were capped with bovine serum albumin (BSA). UV- visible spectroscopy showed the absorption peak at 420 nm indicates the formation of AgNPs. Fourier Infra –red (FTIR) attenuated total reflection (ATR) spectroscopy showed amide and amine group associated with AgNPs that stabilizes the nanoparticles. Energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX) showed a strong peak of silver confirms the presence of silver. Thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA) analysis was used to determine the protein degradation showed less protein degradation at higher temperature confirms the stability of nanoparticles. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed the AgNPs are well dispersed and spherical, and 5.37 nm to 17.19 whereas albumin coated nanoparticles are size ranges from 11.26 nm to 23.85 nm. The anticancer effect of capped AgNPs (cAgNPs) showed the IC50 value against breast cancer MCF-7 at 80 μg/mL, intestinal colon cancer HCT- 116 60 μg/mL, and bone cancer osteosarcoma MG-63 cell line80 μg/mL while against normal fibroblast cells 3T3 cells showed the IC50 value at 140 μg/mL. Lactate dehydrogenase assay (LDH) showed higher toxicity on MCF-7, HCT-116, and MG-63 cells. The apoptotic study clearly showed the blebbing of membrane, chromatin condensation due to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by ethidium bromide and acridine orange dual staining method. The DNA analysis showed the complete fragmentation of the DNA of treated cells when compared with control cells.

Contact angles quantify the wettability of the rough or smooth surfaces of board materials. The aim of this study was to experimentally verify the Wenzel and Cassie theory and evaluate the essential properties of the binderless bio-composite particleboard fabricated from oil palm trunk and Acacia mangium wood. The particleboard properties were explored through contact angle surface morphology, fractal dimension, and surface roughness measurement. The hydrophilic and hydrophobic natures of the particleboard surface were established through Wenzel and Cassie theory. The contact angle and fractal dimensions showed that particleboards with a high proportion of oil palm trunk (OPT) followed the Wenzel theory and hydrophilic in nature. The increase of Acacia mangium wood (AM) proportion in the particleboard increased the fractal dimension and consequently hydrophilicity decreased. These results are well supported by the reduced percentage thickness swelling and water absorption properties of the binderless particleboard.

Oil palm trunk is a kind of biomass rich in starch content. Oil palm trunk waste was available throughout the year in Malaysia and Indonesia due to continuous felling of nonproductive, over 25-year-old trees. Even though some manufacturers were using it in plywood and veneer production, they are hard to handle which later becomes less favorable raw materials due to a high moisture content where combination with a high starch content quickly attracts fungus and wood-decaying agents. The objective of this work was to evaluate properties of experimental wood composite panels, manufactured using oil palm-extracted starch modified with glutardialdehyde (OPSMG) as a binder. Different analyses were employed to characterize the properties of the samples besides evaluation of bending, internal bonding strength, and dimensional stability of the panels. Characterization on the functional group using the FT-IR analysis showed presence of aldehyde groups and ketone stretching vibrations at 1736.05 cm−1 and 1596.25 cm−1, which proves the presence of glutardialdehyde besides formation of bonding between the OPSMG and the woody materials. The XRD analysis showed the starch modification had lowered the crystallinity index which in turn increased the strength of the manufactured wood composites. The OPSMG wood composites were also found to have lower thermal stability, as evaluated using the TGA analysis. It was recorded that the maximum modulus of rupture for OPSMG wood composites was achieved at the 0.80 g/cm3 density level with an average value of 15.446 N/mm2 which showed 38.00% increment in strength between those two types of wood composites. Thickness swelling after immersion in water can still be improved by incorporating the moisture-repellent material later. After analyzing the results, it was concluded that modified oil palm starch has the potential to be used as an environment friendly binder for wood composite making.

The physico-chemical analysis of bark-free oil palm trunk (OPT) in comparison with rice husk (RH) was evaluated for their suitability in building construction. The results showed insignificant differences in both chemical and proximate analysis of the two fillers. The optimum value for flexural and nail-pull hardness test was at 20% OPT loading. The OPT mixed gypsum composite shows good thermal stability suitable to be used as a new type of filler for the reinforcement of gypsum composite. The limitation however is its hygroscopic properties that might affects the dimensional stability of gypsum composite when contact with water.

The aim of this study was to produce activated carbon derived from cassava stem with suitable characteristics as a good adsorbent. The optimal conditions for preparing the activated cassava stem were 146 min and 787 °C for the activation time and activation temperature, respectively. The experimental values of surface area and yield under these conditions correspond to the values of the expected optimized process. The activation temperature had the greatest impact on the carbon surface area and yield as compared to the activation time. The characteristics of raw and activated cassava stem were significantly different. A large surface area was detected in the activated carbon produced, showing the great potential of cassava stem to be utilized as a raw material for the production of activated carbon with good adsorption properties.

The bulk availability of banana waste in the world has made a move towards the development of alternative novel renewable sugars in present study as the pressed juice from banana frond and pseudostem was found to contain high level of renewable sugars such as glucose, sucrose and fructose. By using a simple sugarcane press, the glucose content in the banana frond juice was 16.6 g/L, which accounts for 55% of the total fermentable sugars. From the results, the lipase production reached ∼200 U/mL in medium comprising banana frond juice and banana pseudostem juice, comparable to basal medium with glucose (206.3 U/mL) as carbon source in basal media. As banana pseudostem possesses high content of starch, microwave heating pretreatment showed 36% enhancement of glucose content (10.4 g/L) in juice as compared to direct pressed juice (7.78 g/L). This result indicates that banana waste juice can be used as an alternative fermentable carbon source for lipase production and has potential as a fermentable carbon source.

Oil palm is an important crop for global vegetable oil production, and is widely grown in the humid tropical regions of Southeast Asia. Projected future climate change may well threaten palm oil production. However, oil palm plantations currently produce large amounts of unutilised biological waste. Oil palm stems – which comprise two-thirds of the waste - are especially relevant because they can contain high levels of non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) that can serve as feedstock for biorefineries. The NSC in stem are also considered a potent buffer to source-sink imbalances. In the present study, we monitored stem NSC levels and female reproductive growth. We then applied convergent cross mapping (CCM) to assess the causal relationship between the time-series. Mutual causal relationships between female reproductive growth and the stem NSC were detected, with the exception of a relationship between female reproductive organ growth and starch levels. The NSC levels were also influenced by long-term cumulative temperature, with the relationship showing a seven-month time lag. The dynamic between NSC levels and long-term cumulative rainfall showed a shorter time lag. The lower temperatures and higher cumulative rainfall observed from October to December identify this as a period with maximum stem NSC stocks.

Lignin was extracted from coconut husk via alkaline pulping, either Kraft or soda. The isolated lignin samples were classified as hydroxy-benzaldehyde, vanillin, and syringaldehyde type according to Fourier-transform Infrared Spectroscopy, 1H and 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectra. Soda lignin (SL) showed higher thermal stability and glass transition temperature (Tg) than Kraft lignin (KL) as proven by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), respectively. The soda-lignin-phenol-glyoxal (SLPG) resins with the optimum percentage of lignin substitution at 30% showed improved solid content and gel time in comparison to 30% of Kraft-lignin-phenol-glyoxal (KLPG) and phenol-glyoxal (PG) resin. The good mechanical properties in SLPG is due to the higher amount of molecular weight as well as higher phenolic and G-type unit in lignin that improve the properties of 30% SLPG adhesive. Moreover, the addition of layered double hydroxides (LDH) as reinforced filler up to 15%-30% SLPG adhesive blend shows a great performance (especially mechanical properties) as compared to 30% SLPG adhesive alone.

This study investigated the efficacy of epichlorohydrin-modified oil palm starch as an adhesive in addition to urea formaldehyde, to minimise the use of urea formaldehyde adhesive in particleboard manufacturing. A single-layer particleboard was fabricated from rubberwood particles and urea formaldehyde resin supplemented with modified oil palm starch adhesive. The adhesive performance was analysed by studying the physical properties (actual density, moisture content, thickness swelling and water absorption) and mechanical properties (bending strength and internal bond strength) of the prepared panels. The panels of two target densities were manufactured (600 and 800 kg/m3) at two different pressing times (15 min and 20 min). The performance of manufactured panels were analysed by scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffractometry, thermogravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry. The panels manufactured in this study met the minimum required strength as stated in Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) but a lower water resistant property. Furthermore, a panel with a density of 800 kg/m3 had improved mechanical properties in comparison to a panel exhibiting a density of 600 kg/m3 when manufactured with a 15 min pressing time.

Environmental remediation based on catalytic technologies has gained prominence as highly effective mean of removing toxic organic pollutants. Herein, mixed metal nanoparticles were decorated onto lignocellulose based support material, namely oil palm frond (OPF) biomass to fabricate a nanocatalyst (Cu + Co@OPF) via. facile chemical route. Various microscopic properties of as-prepared Cu + Co@OPF were examined using XRD, FTIR, FESEM, EDS and TGA. To check the universal applicability of as-prepared catalyst in wastewater decontamination, reduction of eight models pollutants was investigated such as dyes viz., Congo red (CR), Methyl orange (MO), Rhodamine B (RB), Methylene blue (MB) and different nitrophenols such as Ortho-nitrophenol (ONP), Meta-nitrophenol (MNP), Para-nitrophenol (PNP), 2, 4-dinitrophenol (DNP). Using Cu + Co@OPF heterostructure platform, complete reduction of organic pollutants was achieved in shorter time using NaBH4 as a hydrogen and electron source. The rate of catalytic reduction of pollutants followed order as; MO ˃ RB ˃ MB ˃ CR and PNP ˃ MNP ˃ ONP ˃ DNP in case of dyes and nitrophenols, respectively. The Cu + Co@OPF based heterostructure demonstrated multifunctional properties, for instance enhanced diffusion of pollutants, excellent catalytic activity as well as easy recovery. In addition to being renewable and eco-friendly, the porous and rough three-dimensional structure of biomass provided a large surface area for the formation of high-density of mixed metal NPs as possible catalytic sites, also allowing more contact between NPs and pollutant molecules in subsequent reduction reactions. The results reported herein present the potential of Cu + Co@OPF as highly efficient, cheaper, recoverable, universally applicable nanocatalyst and we advocate that its mass production would be highly useful in wastewater treatment.

Chemical agents and activation atmosphere have a pretty good influence on the formation of activated carbons, surface characteristic, and its adsorption properties. In this experiment, the effect of activating agents (H3PO4, ZnCl2, KOH, and CaO) on Acacia mangium wood under nitrogen and carbon dioxide gas atmosphere were evaluated. The obtained activated carbons were characterized by percent burn-off, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX), image analysis, textural properties, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), powder x-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), proton adsorption capacity, and pHzpc. The results revealed that the chemical activation increased the yield and oxygen-free atmosphere created by nitrogen gas was more efficient in producing significant surface area, and large pore volume activated carbons with a pore size in the range of 2 nm–50 nm. Among the activating agents, the H3PO4 was observed to be most appropriate in the presence of N2 activation atmosphere for the production of the large surface area (BET surface area, 1161.29 m2/g) activated carbons (AMH1) from Acacia mangium wood. The adsorption capacity of AMH1 against rhodamine B and methylene blue were found to be 76.66 mg/g and 159.89 mg/g, respectively.

Some researchers formerly provided the mechanical, physical, and attenuation properties of the fabricated Eremurus–Rhizophora spp. particleboard phantom. In this study, the percentage depth dose (PDD) and the half value layer (HVL) of fabricated Eremurus–Rhizophora spp. particleboard phantom were determined and compared with those of Perspex and water phantoms, with the same standard phantom size (30 cm × 30 cm × 30 cm) in the diagnostic energy range using TLD 100H. In addition, the energy range of X-ray was in diagnostic range of energy. The results indicated that the PDD and HVL of the fabricated Eremurus–Rhizophora spp. particleboard phantom were close to those of the Perspex phantom. Likewise, the PDD and HVL of the fabricated Eremurus–Rhizophora spp. particleboard phantom were found in good agreement with those of water phantom. According to the results of this study, the fabricated Eremurus–Rhizophora spp. particleboard phantom can be used as medical phantoms.

Detailed investigation on the physicochemical characterization of Malaysian crop and agro-industrial biomass residues has been carried out to identify promising feedstock for thermochemical and biochemical energy yield. This study covered a wide range of biomass residues including oil palm frond (OPF), oil palm trunk (OPT), empty fruit bunches (EFB), palm kernel shell (PKS), rice husk (RH), rice straw (RS) and kenaf biomass (K). From the detailed characterization studies based on proximate composition, CHNS/O analysis, calorific value and lignocellulosic content determination, physicochemical properties of biomass residues were correlated with their potential for bioenergy generation. In addition, various analytical techniques such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetry (TG) and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) were used to study various microscopic properties of biomass residues such as functional groups, crystallographic structure, thermal degradation and mineralogical composition, respectively. Results showed that in terms of volatile matter, the order followed was; EFB (83.42%) ˃ K (82.70%) ˃ OPT (81.46%) ˃ OPF (76.98%) ˃ RS (76.42%) ˃ PKS (69.66%) ˃ RH (66.65%). Proximate analysis revealed that RH has the highest ash content (18.82%). Notably, minimum undesirable ash material was generated by K (5.73%), EFB (6.56%) and OPT (7.71%) containing high fractions of catalytic species. PKS presented maximum thermochemical potential with higher heating value of 17.32 MJ/kg followed by K (16.66 MJ/kg), OPT (16.34 MJ/kg), RS (16.15 MJ/kg), EFB (16.07 MJ/kg), OPF (14.49 MJ/kg) and RH (14.37 MJ/kg). Due to highest apparent density and maximum content of fixed carbon as well as lignin, PKS can be an interesting energy resource in thermochemical processes. Compositional analysis revealed that OPF, OPT and K were rich in polysaccharide content with much less quantity of lignin. Based on XRD measurements, it was found that EFB and K would be more susceptible to enzymatic digestion due to lower crystallinity index (CrI) compared to other residues. We believe that these investigations could decisively contribute to a better understanding of the influence of different factors related to lignocellulosic biomass feedstock on the efficiency of conversion and biofuel potential.

Particleboard from renewal agricultural residues or waste offers a significant effect toward ecological problem. However, hygroscopic nature of waste material contributes to a lower dimensional stability and lower strength properties in comparison to conventional particleboard. Therefore, the objective of this study was to convert oil palm waste, namely oil palm trunk, into particleboard with the addition of polylactic acid (PLA), a type of biodegradable thermoplastic, as a natural binder. Particleboard of oil palm trunk made with a target density of 0.8 g/cm3, at a pressing temperature of 180 °C, a pressing time of 20 min, and a pressure of 5 MPa was added with 10% of PLA. The PLA was added into different thickness particleboards, namely 5 mm, 10 mm, and 15 mm. The mechanical and physical properties of particleboards with the addition of PLA in comparison to binderless particleboards made from oil palm trunk were then evaluated. Thus, thermal degradation, spectroscopic characterization, crystallinity properties, and morphological properties of such types of boards were also examined. The mechanical properties, such as modulus of rupture and internal bond strength, and physical properties, such as thickness swelling and water absorption, had significantly improved with the addition of PLA compared to binderless particleboard. Particleboard with the addition of PLA exhibited satisfactory mechanical properties based on Japanese Industrial Standard for Particleboard Type 8. The thermal stability, spectroscopic characterization, crystallinity, and morphological results indicated that the addition of PLA improved the basic properties of the particleboards made of oil palm trunk.

Crystallinity of cellulosic fiber directly affects the physical and chemical behavior of the individual fiber and ultimately the product made from. In a controlled condition, if the natural fiber is exposed to enzymatic hydrolysis, its crystallinity improves without affecting the cellulose component of the fiber. In this work, four basic factors for enzymatic reaction, i.e., temperature, time, pH, and enzyme amount, were optimized using response surface methodology (RSM). The response was taken as the fiber crystallinity index, measured by X-ray diffraction method. The optimum treated fiber was further analyzed for the field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and results were compared with untreated fiber. Medium density fiberboards (MDF) were manufactured from optimum treated fiber and its tensile properties and water resistance properties were compared with MDF made from untreated fiber. The observation revealed a maximum of up to 14% increment in fiber crystallinity index (CrI) as compared to untreated fiber. The MDF prepared from optimum treated fiber exhibits improved tensile property and lower water absorption property as compared to MDF prepared from untreated fibers.

Formaldehyde emissions from conventional particleboards raise issues of health and safety. One of the potential solutions is binderless particleboards made without using synthetic adhesives. However, the physical and mechanical properties of untreated binderless particleboards are relatively poor compared to conventional particleboards. This research aims to reveal the potential of using steam pretreatment to improve binderless particleboard properties made from oil palm trunk. The oil palm trunk particles were treated with steam pretreatment for different durations of time (20, 40, 60 min). The chemical constituents of the treated and untreated particles were evaluated. The binderless particleboards were made from treated and untreated particles. In addition, panels using untreated oil palm trunk particles with 10% urea&ndash, formaldehyde resin were made and used as a comparison. The boards were evaluated according to European Standards. The results indicated that the hemicellulose and starch content gradually reduced with the progression of steam pretreatment. The physical and mechanical properties were improved by increasing steam pretreatment duration. The steam pretreatment was able to improve the properties of binderless particleboards made from oil palm trunk. However, the performance of steam-pretreated binderless particleboard in this study is not compatible with the particleboards made using 10% urea&ndash, formaldehyde.

This research aimed at investigating the effect of epoxy resin and flame retardant additives on oil palm trunk particleboard. The oil palm trunk was used as a raw material with epoxy resin as a binder, which was synthesized by a reaction of epichlorohydrin and phenolphthalein, while aluminium hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide were used as flame retardant additives to manufacture particleboards. Four different types of particleboards were produced, control board, board with 10% epoxy resin, board with 10% epoxy resin and 6% aluminium hydroxide and board with 10% epoxy resin and 6% magnesium hydroxide, based on a target density of $$0.80~\hbox {g}~\hbox {cm}^{-3}$$, at a temperature of $$180^{\circ }\hbox {C}$$, a pressure of 5 MPa and a pressing time of 20 min. The mechanical, physical, functional group, spectroscopic, morphological and elemental analysis properties were determined in comparison with control particleboard. Thermal degradation and flame retardant analyses were also carried out to analyse the thermal properties of particleboards. The results indicated that particleboard bonded with epoxy resin and flame retardant additives had improved mechanical, physical, thermal and flame retardant properties compared to control oil palm trunk particleboard. Overall results showed that epoxy resin as a binder and aluminium hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide as additives have the potential to be incorporated into the particleboard to improve flame retardant properties.

Formaldehyde fumes from wood composite products and oil palm biomass waste disposal are two environmental problems that need to be solved. In this work, starch from oil palm trunks was used to reduce formaldehyde usage in wood composite making. Starch was extracted using sodium metabisulphite before being chemically modified using glutardialdehyde solution. Wood composites were made using glutardialdehyde modified oil palm starch at three density levels, 0.60 g/cm3, 0.70 g/cm3 and 0.80 g/cm3. Similar wood composite with an additional 2% urea-formaldehyde resin was also made, with urea-formaldehyde wood composite was prepared as a comparison. Wood and binder mixtures were laid into a mould and hot-pressed at 165 °C for 20 min. Produced panels were characterized using FT-IR, XRD, TGA and DSC. Physical and mechanical tests were also done to evaluate the effect of binder on the strength of the wood composites. Wood panels were exposed to Schizophyllum commune, Pycnoporus sanguineus, Formitopsis palustris and Trametes versicolor to study their fungal resistance. Results showed that the addition of urea-formaldehyde helps to stabilize the wood composite when exposed to moisture. Wood composite made using glutardialdehyde modified oil palm starch showed excellent properties at a 0.80 g/cm3 density level where the MOR, MOE and internal bonding strength were recorded as 15.45 N/mm2, 3944.62 N/mm2 and 0.59 N/mm2, respectively. These were further increased by the addition of 2% urea-formaldehyde with the strength measured as 18.06 N/mm2, 3626.48 N/mm2 and 0.65 N/mm2, respectively. All of the wood composites passed the requirement of Japanese Industrial Standard, with the addition of urea-formaldehyde into the formulation further improving their moisture and fungal resistance. Glutardialdehyde modified oil palm starch has the potential to be used in wood composite making, based on the results obtained.

Flame retardant particleboards from oil palm trunk particles were made by treatment with sodium chloride solution, then bonded with poly(vinyl) alcohol together with citric acid and calcium carbonate as additives. Flame retardancy, thermal, physical, and mechanical properties were evaluated for suitability as construction materials. The novel flame-retardant oil palm trunk particleboard was successfully produced. Treated oil palm trunk with 20% of poly(vinyl) alcohol and 10% of calcium carbonate showed the highest limited oxygen index (LOI) with good thermal stability and potential to be used as flame-retardant particleboard. Also, salt pre-treatment was found to enhance the flame retardancy of particleboard.

The objective of the study was to evaluate the dimensional stability of experimental particle board panels made from rubberwood (Hevea brasiliensis) using modified starch as binder. Panels were manufactured using 15% corn starch modified with glutardialdehyde and 13% modified starch with 2% Urea Formaldehyde resin as improvement. The particle boards were tested for their dimensional stability towards moisture. Results found that the 2% replacement of modified starch with urea formaldehyde resin showed increment in dimensional stability compared to using glutardialdehyde modified corn starch only as the binder, recorded at 39.38 % and 23.47 % for particleboard with 0.80 g/cm3 density after exposed to 75% and 95 % relative humidity. Therefore, this study indicated that combination of modified corn starch and urea formaldehyde resin can have a potential to be used as an improved binder to produce particle board panels with accepted properties.The objective of the study was to evaluate the dimensional stability of experimental particle board panels made from rubberwood (Hevea brasiliensis) using modified starch as binder. Panels were manufactured using 15% corn starch modified with glutardialdehyde and 13% modified starch with 2% Urea Formaldehyde resin as improvement. The particle boards were tested for their dimensional stability towards moisture. Results found that the 2% replacement of modified starch with urea formaldehyde resin showed increment in dimensional stability compared to using glutardialdehyde modified corn starch only as the binder, recorded at 39.38 % and 23.47 % for particleboard with 0.80 g/cm3 density after exposed to 75% and 95 % relative humidity. Therefore, this study indicated that combination of modified corn starch and urea formaldehyde resin can have a potential to be used as an improved binder to produce particle board panels with accepted properties.

Malaysia is one of the biggest producers of palm oil in the world but the oil palm wood is considered as waste after final harvesting. A huge and inexpensive availability of oil palm trunk (OPT) can be a sustainable source of alternative wood for various structural applications, if it can be utilized. The objective of this work was to prepare a steamed treated compressed OPT lumber and evaluate the physical, chemical and biological properties of modified wood. In this technique OPT samples were steamed at temperature 130 °C for 2 h before being compressed at high temperature. Wettability of the steam compressed OPT was analysed by contact angle method and observed it was reduced as compared to simply compressed OPT. Samples were exposed to outdoor conditions to evaluate their resistance against biological deterioration. Microscope and X-ray diffraction analyses of the samples were also carried out. Steamed compressed OPTs exhibited improved resistance against biodegradation probably due to the increase of extractives in it, as compared to simply compressed OPTs. It seems that steaming in combination of compressing at high temperature would enhance the properties of OPTs.

The aim of this study was to optimize the processing variables of producing compressed veneer panel from oil palm trunk without synthetic adhesive using response surface methodology. Based on the analysis, the optimal pressing temperature was at 186.6 °C and pressing time at 30 min and using outer part of oil palm trunk veneer to produce compressed veneer panel from oil palm trunk with acceptable mechanical strength and dimensional stability. The panel was produced by stacking 5 layers of 0.45 cm veneer to achieve final target thickness of 10 mm. The statistical analysis indicated that bending and shear block strength of the panel from optimal manufacturing condition were 36.07 MPa and 5.20 MPa respectively with 35.4% of delamination. It was shown that certain manufacturing parameters including pressing temperature, pressing time and part of oil palm trunk veneer could bind the oil palm trunk veneers without the need of synthetic adhesives with acceptable mechanical and physical properties.

The replacement of the synthetic binder like urea formaldehyde and other suitable binder with natural adhesive like starch is very challenging to meet acceptable properties. This study evaluates the physicochemical and properties of both native starch and blended oil palm starch from the mixture of polyvinyl alcohol, boric acid and nano silicon dioxide. The result shows higher crystalline index and enthalpy peak of differentiate scanning calorimetry from blended oil palm starch bonded particleboard in comparison with those bonded with native starch. Morphological changes of native starch after blending process were observed from the scanning electron micrograph. Improvement were seen in both the dimensional stability and internal bond strength. The study shows that blended oil palm starch would be a potential candidate as a green binder in particleboard production.

The aim of the study was to produce and characterize the modified starches and their suitability as wood adhesive for the particleboard manufacturing. The adhesive properties and particleboard manufactured from rubberwood using the modified starch and modified starch mixed with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) were evaluated. Mixing of PVA with modified starch reduced the viscosity but increased the solid content and thermal property of the modified starch. Particleboard bonded with modified starch mixed with PVA also had improvement in physical and mechanical properties, showing great potential of modified starch and PVA as an adhesive for the green particleboard with good properties.

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) empty fruit bunches (OPEFB) was treated with cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) to make its surface suitable for methyl orange (MO) dye adsorption. CTAB-treated OPEFB samples were characterized for their surface functional groups using FTIR, pHzpc, proton-binding capacity, and Boehm titration techniques. The surface morphology and elemental composition of the sample were also studied, employing field emission scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). It was found that in totality, acidic surface functional group increased after CTAB treatment. The adsorption process was well explained with pseudo-second-order kinetic model. The obtained equilibrium sorption data were then analyzed using the Langmuir, Freundlich, Dubinin–Radushkevich, and Tempkin isotherms. The results showed that sorption was surfactant dose dependent and adsorption increased with an increase in the percentage of surfactant applied on the OPEFB. The maximum adsorpt...

Background: Heterocyclic molecules have been synthesized by a green and facile strategy. These mole-cules contain a 8-membered azocine ring. The structures have been determined by spectral analysis and single crystal X-ray analysis. These compounds have anticancer activity. Method: A mixture of ninhydrin and acetone/ethylmethylketone in acetic acid in molar ratio 1: 1 were heated on water bath for 15 minutes. The reaction mixtures were dried on rotary evaporator and crystallized with chloro-form- n-hexane (1: 1 v/v) to give the colorless crystals of 1 And 2 respectively. Compounds 3 and 4 were synthe-sized by adding o-phenylenediamine to the completed reaction mixtures of 1 and 2 and each was further heated on water bath for 5 minutes. The dried reaction mixtures were chromatographed over a silica gel column and crystalized as 3 and 4. Results: This strategy resulted novel class of anticancer benzazocines (3 and 4). Conclusion: This method features mild reaction conditions and simple operation. The synthesis completes in two steps; from ninhydrin to 1 and 2 and from 1 and 2 to 3 and 4. The same basic skeleton of 3 and 4 and the same synthesis procedure clearly shows the general applicability of this reaction that is also proved enough by single crystal X-ray analysis and the strategy can be applicable for a wide range of other substrates. The obtained compounds are potential anticancer agents.

Cellulose is a multilevel, complex molecular structure built from superfine fibrils having diameters in the nanoscale. These nanofibrils contain highly ordered nanocrystallites and low-ordered whiskers in nanodomains. The cellulose in nanosize can be recovered from the cellulosic biomass by the top-down technique involving various physical and chemical processes followed by refining technique. At present, nanocellulose synthesis is an entirely established technique; however, it involves harsh chemical treatments that are perpetually hazardous to humans and the environment. Various green techniques for nanocellulose synthesis have been proposed such as enzymatic hydrolysis, ionic liquid, and so forth. Although nanocellulose is derived from cellulose, it possesses completely diverse characteristics from original materials. It shows enhanced crystallinity, high surface area, rheological properties, alignment and orientation, biodegradability, biocompatibility, low toxicity, and so on. Nanocellulose has gained much attention for various biochemical applications due to its remarkable physical properties, exceptional surface chemistry and superb biological properties. Its biomedical applications include wound dressings, drug conveyance, medicinal inserts, tissue building, nourishment, and beautifying agents. Whereas its composite materials applications include preparation of biodegradable plastics, aqueous coating, and materials creation.

Glucose oxidase (EC 1.1.3.4) sensors that have been developed and widely used for glucose monitoring have generally relied on electrochemical principle. In this study, the potential use of colorimetric method for glucose detection utilizing glucose oxidase-magnetic cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) is explored. Magnetic cellulose nanocrystals (magnetic CNCs) were fabricated using iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) and cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) via electrostatic self-assembly technique. Glucose oxidase was successfully immobilized on magnetic CNCs using carbodiimide-coupling reaction. About 33% of GOx was successfully attached on magnetic CNCs, and the affinity of GOx-magnetic CNCs to glucose molecules was slightly higher than free enzymes. Furthermore, immobilization does not affect the specificity of GOx-magnetic CNCs towards glucose and can detect glucose from 0.25 mM to 2.5 mM. Apart from that, GOx-magnetic CNCs stored at 4 &deg, C for 4 weeks retained 70% of its initial activity and can be recycled for at least ten consecutive cycles.

Box-Behnken model of response surface methodology was used to study the effect of adsorption process parameters for Rhodamine B (RhB) removal from aqueous solution through optimized large surface area date stone activated carbon. The set experiments with three input parameters such as time (10-600min), adsorbent dosage (0.5-10g/L) and temperature (25-50°C) were considered for statistical significance. The adequate relation was found between the input variables and response (removal percentage of RhB) and Fisher values (F- values) along with P-values suggesting the significance of various term coefficients. At an optimum adsorbent dose of 0.53g/L, time 593min and temperature 46.20°C, the adsorption capacity of 210mg/g was attained with maximum desirability. The negative values of Gibb's free energy (ΔG) predicted spontaneity and feasibility of adsorption; whereas, positive Enthalpy change (ΔH) confirmed endothermic adsorption of RhB onto optimized large surface area date stone activated carbons (OLSADS-AC). The adsorption data were found to be the best fit on the Langmuir model supporting monolayer type of adsorption of RhB with maximum monolayer layer adsorption capacity of 196.08mg/g.

Cellulose nanocrystals were isolated from oil palm trunk by total chlorine free method. The samples were either water pre-hydrolyzed or non-water pre-hydrolyzed, subjected to soda pulping, acidified and ozone bleached. Cellulose and cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) physical, chemical, thermal properties, and crystallinity index were investigated by composition analysis, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, fourier transform infrared, thermogravimetric analysis and X-ray diffraction. Water pre-hydrolysis reduced lignin (

Wood is globally desirable natural material used for home, construction, furniture, building, tools, vehicles, indoor and outdoor application, and decorative uses. Thus, there is a need for alternative material by manufacturing composite panels. In the economic activity of wood-based industry, particleboards are widely used due to its performance and cost efficiency. Using material that demonstrates positive environmental qualities is also a main area of consideration. However, due to the environmental concern, research and engineering interest have been changed from using synthetic adhesive to a new biobased adhesive or self-bonding board that is free from synthetic adhesive called binderless board. The search for alternative, potential, and sustainable raw material has been distributed over a large area around the world. This chapter considers the area of binderless board manufacturing, treatment, and other processes using oil palm biomass as raw materials. The mechanical and physical properties are viewed and compared with other binderless boards made from other types of oil palm biomass. The results presented here are only based on the environmental aspects without coinciding any economic factors or costing.

Particleboard is a popular wood composite made using mixtures of wood particles and resin, binder or adhesives, pressed at high temperature to cured. Despite its popularity, formaldehyde-based adhesives used in the formulations lead to cancerous effect as the formaldehyde fumes released from the unreacted chemicals travel into human lungs. Therefore this study tries to reduce the utilization of formaldehyde-based resin by replacement of a significant portion of the binder with glutardialdehyde modified corn starch as the binder. However, this practice could lower the durability of the particleboards against biological attack. Therefore, this study evaluates the fungal resistance of the particleboard panels. Panels were manufactured using 83:15:2 ratio of wood, corn starch-modified with glutardialdehyde and formaldehyde resin, respectively, as an improvement. Four types of wood-degrading fungal were chosen including Trametes versicolor, Formitopsis palustris, Schizophyllum commune and Pycnoporus sangineus. Some of the particleboard showed a little increased in fungal resistance when 2% urea formaldehyde was added, compared to using glutardialdehyde modified corn starch and starch only as the binder. Nine out of twelve samples showed a decrement in fungal degradation by using glutardialdehyde modified starch as the binder. Meanwhile, 6 out of 12 samples showed higher fungal resistance after additional of 2% urea formaldehyde in the binder formulation. Based on the results, combination of modified corn starch and urea formaldehyde resin could have a potential to be used in particleboard making without reducing the initial resistance towards fungal attack.

The objective of the study was to evaluate the dimensional stability of experimental particleboard panels made from rubberwood (Hevea brasiliensis) using modified starch as binder. Panels were manufactured using 15% corn starch modified with glutardialdehyde and 13% modified starch with 2% Urea Formaldehyde resin as improvement. The particleboards were tested for their dimensional stability towards moisture. Results found that the 2% replacement of modified starch with urea formaldehyde resin showed a little increased in dimensional stability compared to using glutardialdehyde modified corn starch only as the binder. Therefore, this study indicated that combination of modified corn starch and urea formaldehyde resin can have a potential to be used as an improved binder to produce particleboard panels with accepted properties.

Improvement of the robustness of hydrophobic surfaces is crucial to achieving commercial applications of these surfaces in such various areas as self-cleaning, water repellency and corrosion resistance. Compressed oil palm trunk (OPT) panel is one of potential product which can be used as panelling and indoor furniture application. By adding hydrophobic properties to compressed oil palm trunk panel might increase the application of compressed oil palm trunk especially for outdoor application. In this study, fabrication is using the sol-gel technique. Sol-gel was prepared by adding ethanol with Hexadecyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide (CTAB) solution with Tetraethyl Orthosilicate (TEOS) with surface modification of chlorotrimethylsilane (CTMS). The surface with hydrophobic coating was undergone surface analysis with contact angle machine with the aid of software SCA 20 and the determined of the morphology of surface with scanning electron microscope (SEM). The produced compressed oil palm trunk surfaces exhibited promising hydrophobic properties with a contact angle of 104° and the relatively better mechanical robustness.

In the decade, oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) in Malaysia is one of the conventional sources that will be rising, and the rate of biomass will considerably increase in yet to come. Presently, oil palm biomass is going through research and development and appears to be the most sustainable alternative. Investigations on oil palm biomass have been conducted to support in draw out waste of oil palm and in the meantime can help economic yield to the country. This study was expected to estimate the effect of power intensity properties of microwave modified oil palm trunk lumber. Microwave treatment of oil palm trunk samples was set of connections by using a microwave operating at 2.45 GHz with the liberated process input power intensity (600-1000W) were studied under the given condition. Impact and compression of the samples were tested. The analysis of properties of the fresh material and dry samples was employed by scanning electron microscopy. Oven drying technique also was involved as a comparison of the conventional drying process in this research. Based on the outcomes of this study, both drying methods improved the characteristics of the specimens.

Cellulose microfibers were isolated by chemical treatment followed by acid hydrolysis using sulphuric acid. The chemical compositions for extractive, holocellulose, cellulose and lignin were determined. The functional group of raw particles and cellulose microfibers of rubberwood were determined using fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). Morphological studies were viewed using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) to investigate physical changes of the fibers after acid hydrolysis. The results show that cellulose content was increased to 63 % from 52 % after hydrolysis was conducted to the raw particles. Particle size distribution of cellulose microfibers falls in the range of below 100 µm. The removal of lignin and other extractives during chemical and acid hydrolysis can be seen by the absence of certain band in the FTIR spectra. The individualization of the fibers can be seen after hydrolysis with sulphuric acid. The removal of the surface impurities along with defibrillation were also shown in the cellulose microfibers. Cellulose microfibers were isolated by chemical treatment followed by acid hydrolysis using sulphuric acid. The chemical compositions for extractive, holocellulose, cellulose and lignin were determined. The functional group of raw particles and cellulose microfibers of rubberwood were determined using fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). Morphological studies were viewed using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) to investigate physical changes of the fibers after acid hydrolysis. The results show that cellulose content was increased to 63 % from 52 % after hydrolysis was conducted to the raw particles. Particle size distribution of cellulose microfibers falls in the range of below 100 µm. The removal of lignin and other extractives during chemical and acid hydrolysis can be seen by the absence of certain band in the FTIR spectra. The individualization of the fibers can be seen after hydrolysis with sulphuric acid. The removal of the surface impurities along with defibrillation were also shown in the cellulose microfibers.

The study was conducted on characterizing the properties of oil palm fronds (Elaeis guineensis) from different parts. The fronds were cut to three parts which were the top, middle and bottom. The samples were chipped, dried in the oven of 50 °C and ground before they were characterized. The properties of the fronds were characterized using thermal gravimetric analyser (TGA), fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and x-ray diffraction (XRD). The results from TGA showed that the bottom part of the frond had the lowest percentage of residues which was 29.22 % and the degradation temperature was 194.17 °C. The FTIR spectra showed almost similar peaks for all samples. The bottom part of the frond had the highest crystallinity index which was 35.26 %. The study proved that different parts of the frond had different characteristics due to its chemical compositions.