Search

Spiculosiphon oceana Maldonado, López-Acosta, Sitjà, Aguilar, García & Vacelet, 2013 is a Mediterranean endemic giant stalked foraminifer described as a potential bio-indicator of acidic environments, thanks to its ability to cope with stressful chemical conditions. Here, we present the first record and the first video images of living specimens of this giant foraminifera in the Panarea Volcanic Complex (PVC; southern Tyrrhenian Sea), representing the third discovery worldwide. Specimens of S. oceana were identified through microscopic and remotely operated vehicle (ROV) image analyses, in two different areas characterised by water column physico-chemical parameters typical of the non-vented areas, but with some evidence of hydrothermal alteration. This new finding enhances knowledge on the ecology of S. oceana, enlarges its known spatial distribution, and corroborates its affinity to intermediate stress conditions related to hydrothermal activity.

The distribution of floating litter in marine waters, influenced by currents and wind drag, often determines the dispersal of its encrusting fauna. In the present paper, we observed for the first time the colonization of rafting floats from abandoned, lost or derelict fishing gears (ALDFG) by the four protected deep-sea species: Errina aspera, Desmophyllum pertusum, Madrepora oculata Pachylasma giganteum. Overall, 41 floats, colonized by deep benthic species, were found stranded on the shore of the Sicilian coast of the Strait of Messina, between 2016 and 2019. Species composition, number and occurrence of colonizing organisms were analyzed. On the basis of the species composition (the association between E. aspera, P. giganteum and Megabalanus tulipiformis), the knowledge on their ecology, biogeography, path of local currents, it was possible to define that the area of origin of the most part of these fishing net floats was the Strait of Messina.

The close relationship between a polyclad (Platyhelminthes, Rhabditophora, Polycladida) and the mesophotic Atlantic–Mediterranean black coral Antipathella subpinnata (Ellis & Solander, 1786) (Cnidaria, Hexacorallia, Antipatharia) is herein described for the first time. Worms, up to 50 mm long, are elongated with sparse dorsal papillae, an anterior, ruffled pharynx and caudal, well-separated gonopores. The bulbous vagina is connected to a very elongated Lang’s vesicle, while the male apparatus, hosting a cuticular penis papilla, consists in a muscular interpolated prostatic vesicle, formed by few chambers surrounding the ejaculatory duct, a major seminal vesicle and numerous spermiducal bulbs. These features, as well as the uniqueness of the symbiotic relationship and relative reproductive adaptations, support the description of a new taxon, Anthoplana antipathellae gen. et sp. nov. (Acotylea, Notoplanidae). The observed symbiosis is ascribable to exclusive inquilinism with some parasitic traits. The individuals, living in large numbers on the colonies, are highly cryptic thanks to a characteristic pigmentation and a wrapped habitus. They lay numerous annular yellow cocoons (rigid, nest-like structures containing the fertilised eggs), in single or multiple rows on the distal branches of the coral, temporarily denudated of coenenchyme. The occurrence of the polyclad is consistent with the Atlantic–Mediterranean geographical and bathymetrical distribution of the A. subpinnata forests as demonstrated by the analysed photo archive, and a summer reproductive peak can be hypothesised based on the temporal observations carried out in the study areas.

Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems (VMEs) are characterized by prominent biological features susceptible to anthropogenic disturbances. Following international guidelines, the identification and protection of VMEs require a detailed documentation regarding both the community structure and the fishing footprint in the area. This combined information is lacking for the majority of the Mediterranean mesophotic rocky reefs that, similarly to deep-seabottoms, are known to host valuable animal forests. A deep coralligenous site exploited by artisanal fishermen in the NW Mediterranean Sea is here used as a model to assess the vulnerability of animal forests at mesophotic depths and evaluate the sustainability of artisanal fishing practices, particularly lobster trammel net. The Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) footage is used to document the biodiversity and health status of the megabenthic communities, while discard data are employed to quantify the entanglement risk, discard rates of fragile species and threats to sea floor integrity. A multidisciplinary approach is proposed for the assessment of the vulnerability criteria of an EU Special Area of Conservation, leading to specific management measures, including the delineation of fishing restrictions.

The Mediterranean red coral, Corallium rubrum (L.), has been a valuable economic resource for more than 2000 years. The Sicily Channel and surrounding areas are one of the most famous red coral fishing grounds of the whole region, hosting the deepest ever found living colonies and large sub-fossil red coral deposits; the so-called Sciacca banks are a unique location in the whole Mediterranean Sea. In this paper, a morphometric description of this sub-fossil population is presented for the first time from studies of colonies in the collection of several coral factories from Torre del Greco (Naples), with radiocarbon age estimations and growth rate evaluations. From the results of this study, after several thousand years Sciacca red coral colonies maintained the organic matrix structure with evident annual discontinuities, allowing estimations of the annual growth rate (about 0.3 mm/year) and the average population age (about 33.5 years). These resulting data are similar to the values determined for deep-dwelling living red coral populations. The radiocarbon dating evidenced a range of ages, from 8300 to 40 years before 1950 CE, mostly falling between 2700 and 3900 YBP, suggesting that colonies accumulated over a wide span of time. In view of the tectonically active nature of the area, several catastrophic events affected these ancient populations, maintaining them in a persistent state of early-stage, structurally similar to the those in current over-exploited areas.

Chilean Patagonia hosts one of the extensive fjord systems in the world, spanning more than 1,600 km between 41 and 55°S, and with a complex geomorphology and hydrography that supports rich and unique assemblages of marine fauna. The biodiversity of benthic organisms is possibly further enhanced by the geographic position of the region that extends far south into subantarctic waters. However, we currently lack an exhaustive picture of the zonation and ecological functioning of the benthic communities within Chilean fjords. The present study provides a detailed examination of the hard substrata megabenthic communities inhabiting the Puyuhuapi and Jacaf fjord system, in the Aysén Region of Chile. Fifty-nine stations scattered along these fjords were explored through SCUBA diving surveys, at depths between 5 and 30 m, and 16 stations were characterized in terms of benthic cover and diversity using replicated underwater photography. Ten hard bottom megabenthic communities were identified within the fjords, with some communities newly described for this region. Community composition varied both along-fjord, and with depth, and was apparently driven by variation in environmental properties. Our characterization of these fjord communities improves overall knowledge of the functioning of the fjords, and provides a useful baseline against which future anthropogenic pressures can be assessed. Future shifts in bathymetric and geographical distributions might indicate detrimental effects of climate changes, and we therefore propose that characteristic communities could be adopted as “sentinels” for overall environmental status of these unique fjord ecosystems. In this regard, detailed mapping of the distribution of megabenthic communities can provide a fundamental tool that assists in best management practices for these ecosystems.

Marine biodiversity underpins ecosystem health and societal well-being. Preservation of biodiversity hotspots is a global challenge. Molecular tools, like DNA barcoding and metabarcoding, hold great potential for biodiversity monitoring, possibly outperforming more traditional taxonomic methods. However, metabarcoding-based biodiversity assessments are limited by the availability of sequences in barcoding reference databases; a lack thereof results in high percentages of unassigned sequences. In this study we (i) present the current status of known vs. barcoded marine species at a global scale based on online taxonomic and genetic databases; and (ii) compare the current status with data from ten years ago. Then we analyzed occurrence data of marine animal species from five Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) classified as biodiversity hotspots, to identify any consistent disparities in COI barcoding coverage between geographic regions and at phylum level. Barcoding coverage varied among LMEs (from 36.8% to 62.4% COI-barcoded species) and phyla (from 4.8% to 74.7% COI-barcoded species), with Porifera, Bryozoa and Platyhelminthes being highly underrepresented, compared to Chordata, Arthropoda and Mollusca. We demonstrate that although barcoded marine species increased from 9.5% to 14.2% since the last assessment in 2011, about 15,000 (corresponding to 7.8% increase) new species were described from 2011 to 2021. The next ten years will thus be crucial to enroll concrete collaborative measures and long term initiatives (e.g., Horizon 2030, Ocean Decade) to populate barcoding libraries for the marine realm., the Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences (BiGeA) of the University of Bologna (UniBo). The CoMBoMed initiative was supported by the European Marine Research Network (EUROMARINE Network), the Inter-Departmental Research Centre for Environmental Sciences (CIRSA – UniBo), the Cultural Heritage Department (DBC - UniBo, https://beniculturali.unibo.it/it), the Fondazione Flaminia and the ERANet Mar-Tera Project SEAMoBB (Solutions for sEmi-Automated Monitoring of Benthic Biodiversity).

23 pages, 21 figures, 3 tables, This Collective Article presents information about 21 taxa belonging to seven Phyla (one Ochrophyta, one Porifera, three Cnidaria, two Arthropoda, three Mollusca, one Echinodermata, and ten Chordata) and extending from the western Mediterranean Sea to the Levantine Sea. The new records were reported from nine countries as follows: Spain: first records of three deep-sea species from the Blanes Canyon along the Catalan margin, namely the gorgonian Placogorgia coronata, the bivalve Acesta excavata, and the Azores rockling Gaidropsarus granti; Italy: first record of the mesopsammic nudibranch Embletonia pulchra from Ligurian shallow-waters; first record of the deep-sea carnivorous sponge Lycopodina hypogea from the north-central Tyrrhenian Sea, living in dense clusters over dead black corals; new records of the Portuguese man o’ war Physalia physalis from Sardinian and Sicilian waters; first Italian record of the large asteroid Coronaster briareus from the Ionian Sea; first record of the white grouper Epinephelus aeneus in the northernmost point of the Adriatic Sea; Croatia: first record of the gastropod Haliotis mykonosensis for the Adriatic Sea; Malta: new sightings of Physalia physalis from Maltese waters; Libya: first record of the sand crab Albunea carabus from two localities along the Libyan coast; Greece: first records of the deep-sea black coral Parantipathes larix from the eastern Mediterranean Sea; first verified record of the agujon needlefish Tylosurus imperialis in the Hellenic Ionian Sea; first confirmed record of the brown algae Treptacantha squarrosa in the eastern Mediterranean Sea; new records of three deep-sea fish species from the Aegean Sea, namely the bluntnose sixgill shark Hexanchus griseus, the Atlantic pomfret Brama brama, and the rudderfish Centrolophus niger; new record of the tripletail Lobotes surinamensis from Lesvos Island; new record of the shrimp Brachycarpus biunguiculatus from the gut content of the non-indigenous lionfish Pterois miles; Turkey: new record of the imperial blackfish Schedophilus ovalis from Turkish waters; Lebanon: first record of the slender sunfish Ranzania laevis, stranded along the Lebanese coast; Israel: new record, after about 60 years from the last catch, of the spotted dragonet Callionymus maculatus, Their studies presented in this Collective Article received funding from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (ABRIC Project, Ref. RTI2018-096434-B-I00). The study by Bo et al. was funded by EU-ENPI CBC MED 2007–2013, “Ecosystem conservation and References sustainable artisanal fisheries in the Mediterranean basin” (ECOSAFIMED) (grant number ECOSAFIMED - Abushaala, N.M., Shaibi, T., Howaege, H.M., 2014. The abun-II-B/2.1/1073), With the funding support of the ‘Severo Ochoa Centre of Excellence’ accreditation (CEX2019-000928-S), of the Spanish Research Agency (AEI)

The Tavolara-Punta Coda Cavallo Marine Protected Area (North-eastern Sardinia, western Mediterranean Sea) includes, in a restricted area, substrates of different lithology. In fact, the Tavolara Island is characterized by limestone (high carbonate content), while the nearby Molara Island and the Molarotto islet are granitic (high quartz content). These peculiar features create a suitable condition to test the hypothesis that the taxonomic richness of the Mediterranean coralligenous communities could be also driven by the lithological characteristics of the substrate. Differences, in terms of recurrences of the macrobenthic sessile species, mainly macroalgae, sponges, anthozoans and bryozoans, of the coralligenous communities settled on limestone and granite, were investigated by image analysis. 240 photos on standard surfaces and four video transects were taken in 12 sites at comparable depth (40–50 m) but characterized by a different lithology. Multivariate analyses highlighted significant differences among sites, characterized by carbonate and granitic substrates. In general, limestone proved to be more suitable for the development of a thick differentiated coralligenous basal layer and showed a marked heterogeneity. Among structuring species, the gorgonian Eunicella cavolini was more recurrent on limestone than on granite, while the sponges Sarcotragus foetidus, Axinella polypoides and Axinella spp. were significantly more abundant on granite. Results suggest that a number of mechanisms could be involved to explain the observed patterns, such as a selective capacity of several sessile organisms, towards substrate, with ultimate repercussions on the structure of the whole coralligenous assemblage.

Exceptional meteo-marine events, such as storms, may have profound effects on the structure of benthic communities, yet their consequences on these ecosystems in the Mediterranean basin are still poorly known, mainly due to the unpredictability of such phenomena as well as the general lack of comparative datasets. The highly destructive storm of fall 2018, sustained by SE winds exceeding 130 kmh−1 and generating 10-m high waves, hit the coasts of the Ligurian Sea with devastating strength, producing vast damages and profound changes to the coastal morphology. Quantitative surveys performed soon after the catastrophic event were used to study the effects of the storm on the population structure of the habitat-forming gorgonian Paramuricea clavata (Risso, 1826) along the cliffs of the Portofino Promontory, a site particularly stricken by the storm. The same population was studied in 1997, 2002 and 2016, therefore it was possible to compare its health status before and after the impact of the storm. The P. clavata forest lost about one-third of the colonies between 2016 and 2018; colonies up to 25 m depth utterly disappeared, while below 30 m the storm effects were reduced, although the remaining population showed increased levels of epibiosis and necrosis. Over 21-years of observation, the effects of the storm have significantly slowed-down the recovery of the Portofino Promontory population after the massive mortality events of the last decades. Natural stress factors, although unpredictable, are fundamental to put into perspective changes in the benthic communities over time.

Litter has become a common component of marine ecosystems, and its assessment and monitoring are now of primary interest. Here, we characterized seafloor litter in the mesophotic depth range of the Ligurian Sea, one of the most urbanized basins of the Mediterranean Sea. Eighty sites (30–220 m depth) were investigated by by means of ROV video transects. Data regarding environmental parameters and anthropic pressures were used to explain the distribution of human-derived objects. Litter resulted widely distributed in all the investigated areas, with maximum densities of 7900 items ha−1. It was mainly represented by abandoned fishing gears, with highest abundances found on the deep coastal rocky shoals exploited by artisanal and recreational fishermen. Urban litter, primarily represented by plastics, was generally higher close to shore, especially near river mouths and large harbors. Litter densities reported here are among the highest ever recorded in Europe, denoting the urgency for specific actions to prevent further spreading.

Cnidarians are known to undergo reverse development as a survival mechanism against adverse environmental conditions. Polyp bail-out consists in the polyps’ detachment from the mother colony due to stressful conditions, followed by a complete tissue and cells rearrangement and in some cases in a regression into a simple, ciliated form. Here we describe a massive polyp bail-out event occurred in the mesophotic black coral Antipathella subpinnata in reared conditions. This is the first report of a bail-out event in this species providing new insights into the life cycle and ecology of black corals.

The predatory activity of the asteroid Peltaster placenta (Muller and Troschel, 1842) on the black coral Parantipathes larix (Esper, 1790) is here described for the first time based on video footage obtained during a Remotely Operated Underwater Vehicle (ROV) survey conducted in the Pontine Archipelago (Southern Tyrrhenian Sea, Mediterranean Sea). Feeding is carried out on the living coenenchyme of the basal axis and pinnules of the antipatharian and is confirmed by the occurrence of its cnidocysts in the sea star gut content. The chitinous skeletal parts of the black coral are left intact as bare tissue, which helps to relate colonies to the predation event. Among all black coral species present in the research area, P. placenta was observed grazing exclusively on P. larix, similarly to other goniasterids known to be deep-sea corallivores with a marked selectivity for their prey. The predatory behaviour of P. placenta was previously unknown. The extent of its feeding traces suggests a significant influence on benthic trophic relationships and, ultimately, on the functioning, structure and health status of deep Mediterranean black coral forests.

The project "Biodiversity MARE Tricase" aims to research and promote coastal and marine biodiversity at the MARE Outpost (Avamposto MARE), a marine station established in Tricase (Lecce, Italy) in 2015. From March 2016 to September 2017, the first biodiversity inventory of the Tricase coastal area (Ionian Sea) was realized with the aid of citizen scientists (e.g. local fishermen, divers, bathers, and tourists). Preliminary results include 556 taxa, of which the 95% were identified at the species level. Despite the broad knowledge on Mediterranean coastal biodiversity, 71 species represented new records for the Ionian Sea. In parallel with the research activities, people's awareness of the value of biodiversity was raised with scientific dissemination initiatives, involving about 1700 people. The "Biodiversity MARE Tricase" project realized a first small-scale species inventory contributing to the distributional, taxonomic, and ecological knowledge of the present Mediterranean biota. The coastal area of Tricase will be soon included in a new Marine Protected Area and this project represents a step forward for the sustainable development of the community of this coast.

Cold-water corals (CWCs) are the main engineers of extensive deep coral frameworks hosting a lush diversity of species in certain areas of the world, including the Mediterranean Sea. In this basin, the most important bioconstructor species are the so-called “white corals”, i.e. the colonial scleractinians Madrepora oculata and Lophelia pertusa as well as the solitary coral Desmophyllum dianthus. Anthropogenic impacts (e.g., fishing pressure) and human-induced changes (e.g., rising temperatures and ocean acidification) are known to affect these important deep-sea bioconstructors. The present paper provides an overview of the horizontal and vertical distribution of white corals in the Mediterranean Sea. The knowledge of the present distribution of living CWCs represents a crucial baseline to understand how anthropogenic and natural changes are affecting these deep Mediterranean habitats.

An exceptional assemblage of the sea fan Leptogorgia sarmentosa (Anthozoa: Gorgoniidae) was observed inside the Genoa harbour, which represents one of the major Mediterranean ports. The studied assemblage is confined in a shaded portion of a floating dock thriving in extremely shallow water, with specimens even touching the sea surface. It represents the shallowest population of this species and of this genus known worldwide. A total of 188 specimens were observed and measured: the maximum density of 45 specimens m(-2) was reached in the most shaded part of the dock, where the maximum height of colonies (30 cm) was also recorded. Light measurements showed that the illuminance along the dock was comparable to that observed outside the harbour at 20 m depth, where the nearest colonies of L. sarmentosa were recorded for this region. This suggests that high levels of incident light might be putatively interpreted as the limiting factor in the upper bathymetrical distribution of the species. Despite the extremely shallow distribution, however, the population cannot be defined as intertidal as the floating dock avoids exposing the gorgonians to air. The chance to grow far from the silted bottom, but still in a turbid, sciaphilous and nutrient-enriched environment, probably enhanced the settling and growth of the colonies and allowed the formation of a dense and healthy population.

On marine rocky shores, several physical, chemical and biological processes operate to maintain the benthic assemblages’ heterogeneity, but among the abiotic factors, the composition and texture of the rocky substrata have been only sporadically considered. However, biomineralogical studies have demonstrated an unsuspected ability of the benthic organisms to interact at different levels with rocky substrata. Therefore, the mineralogy of the substratum can affect the structure of benthic communities. To evaluate this hypothesis, the macrobenthic assemblages developed on two different ophiolitic rocks (serpentinites and metagabbros) in contact at a restricted stretch of the western Ligurian Riviera (western Mediterranean Sea), with identical environmental and climatic conditions, were analysed. Samplings were carried out at four bathymetric levels (+1m, 0m, -1m, and -3m respect to the mean sea level) and the analysis of the data evidenced differences in terms of species distribution and percent coverage. Algal communities growing on metagabbros were poorer in species richness and showed a much simpler structure when compared to the assemblages occurring on the serpentinites. The most widely distributed animal organism, the barnacle Chthamalus stellatus, was dominant on serpentinites, and virtually absent on metagabbros. Our results suggest a complex pattern of interactions between lithology and benthic organisms operating through processes of inhibition/facilitation related to the mineral properties of the substratum.

Recent ROV surveys conducted on the Ragusa bank in the Sicily Channel (Mediterranean Sea) documented illegal and continuous use of the ‘ingegno’ gear for red coral fishing. Three lost gears were recorded showing different levels of epibiosis thus supporting multi-annual exploitation of the bank. The red coral population of the Ragusa bank showed a typical ‘forest-like’ configuration with upright, medium-sized colonies similar to those of other commercially exploited deep Mediterranean banks. The direct negative effect of this trawling gear was evident from numerous rocky boulders completely enveloped by lost nets and occasionally turned over. Red coral fragments as well as fragments of ‘ingegno’ nets were observed in high abundance on the sea floor. This evidence suggests that this gear is highly destructive even on rough sea floors, contrary to the traditional view, which is that it has a more random impact on rough rocky bottoms. The estimated coral uptake of ‘ingegno’ is 45% of the total coral biomass, while the estimated coral loss, in terms of fragments, is 9%, demonstrating the high impact of this gear. The study highlighted the infringement of the red coral fishing ban by trawling gears as well as a lack of effective policing. The strengthening of controls on landings at nearby harbours, and education programmes for the local maritime communities are among the management actions proposed to protect these surviving red coral populations from the ongoing illegal fishing activity.

During spring 2017, starting from 12 May, exceptional strandings of the purple snail Janthina pallida were recorded in the Ligurian Sea and along the western coast of Sardinia Island, under the effect of southern winds. The strandings continued for 3 days, until 15 May, when the winds shifted to the northern quadrant and the specimens were drifted back offshore. Such extensive strandings have never been previously reported in the scientific literature, either along the Mediterranean shores or elsewhere. Thanks to citizens’ help, it was possible to create a map of the strandings and obtain a gross estimate of the number of beached gastropods. The densities of the stranded animals reached an overall average of 801 ± 215 specimens m−2 (with peaks of over 2000 shells and rafts m−2 densely packed with hydrozoan Velella velella sails), corresponding to an average biomass of about 1.5 kg m−2. The size–frequency distribution of the shell heights showed a bi-modal trend, as is usual in the case of sequential hermaphroditism: almost all the specimens fitting the first mode (11 mm) showed a raft without eggs (males), while all the specimens belonging to the largest mode (23 mm) had rafts with settled egg cases (females). The general trend of the sea currents in the North-western Mediterranean Basin explains the spatial distribution of the strandings following 3 days of constant southern moderate breeze (up to 28 km h−1). The presence of such huge J. pallida banks in the Ligurian Sea is stochastic, probably linked to an Atlantic population entering through the Gibraltar Strait, as evidenced by the simultaneous presence of the buoy barnacle, Dosima fascicularis, a circumtropical species recorded here for the second time in the Mediterranean Sea.

The Ligurian Sea is one of the most studied Mediterranean basins. Since the beginning of the last century, many research expeditions have characterized its benthic and pelagic fauna through scuba diving and trawl surveys. However, a large knowledge gap exists about the composition of benthic communities extending into the so-called mesophotic or twilight depth range, currently under intense pressure from commercial and recreational fishing. A series of visual surveys, carried out by means of remotely operated vehicles between 2012 and 2018, were conducted along the Ligurian deep continental shelf and shelf break, between 30 and 210 m depth, in order to characterize the main benthic biocoenoses dwelling at this depth range and to determine the most relevant environmental factors that explain their spatial distribution. Deep circalittoral communities of the Ligurian Sea were represented by a mixture of species belonging to the deepest extension of shallow-water habitats and deep circalittoral ones. Twelve major biocoenoses were identified, each one characterized by specific preferences in depth range, substrate type and seabed slope. Those biocoenoses included gorgonian and hydrozoan forests, dense keratose sponge grounds, Dendrophyllia cornigera gardens, bryozoan beds and soft-bottom meadows of sabellid polychaetes and soft-corals. Other less common aggregations included six forests of black corals and two populations of Paramuricea macrospina. A georeferenced database has been created in order to provide information to managers and stakeholders about the location of the identified communities and high-diversity areas, aiming to facilitate sustainable long-term conservation of the Ligurian benthic ecosystem.

Temperate mesophotic reefs (circalittoral and offshore circalittoral hard/firm habitats), host complex three-dimensional animal forests and are vulnerable habitats protected by international agreements. In order to evaluate and monitor the environmental status of these ecosystems, the multi-parametric index Mesophotic Assemblages Conservation Status (MACS) was developed, including two independent components, namely Index of Status (Is) and Index of Impact (Ii). The Is includes six metrics, targeting conspicuous species diversity, basal layer and canopy composition, whilst the Ii is composed by six metrics targeting siltation level, canopy condition and marine litter occurrence. Underwater video transects recorded with a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) along the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian Seas offered the chance to test the index on a large geographic scale and various ecological settings, for a total of 14 sites subjected to different human pressures. MACS index showed a high potentiality to distinguish among a wide range of environmental conditions, with local critical situations mainly related to high fishing pressure. With respect to other existing indices, MACS is based on a larger number of parameters, resulting in a higher ability to disentangle natural and anthropogenic factors, hence it leads to a better interpretation of local situations. This tool represents a contribution to the requirements for the monitoring of these marine environments, set by the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive, the Habitats Directive, and the guidelines of the Integrated Monitoring and Assessment Programme of the Mediterranean Sea and Coast of the Barcelona Convention.

The three-dimensional coral scaffolds formed by the skeletons of the cold-water corals Madrepora oculata and Lophelia pertusa represent an important deep-sea hard substratum and create an optimal shelter for a rich associated fauna in which the contribution of Porifera has still not been fully considered. The taxonomic analysis of sponges collected from two Sardinian canyons (Nora and Coda Cavallo, 256–408 m) and associated with the dead coral matrix resulted in 28 species, including new records for the Mediterranean Sea, Italian fauna or Central Tyrrhenian Sea. In addition, for many species this is the first finding associated with the coral framework or the first documentation of the in situ morphology. The taxonomic comparison with sponge assemblages associated with coral frameworks from Santa Maria di Leuca, Strait of Sicily and Bari Canyon, gave the opportunity to evaluate the similarities among geographically separated banks. Overall, the percentage of exclusive species (recorded only in one site), is very high (81%) and only one species is shared by all four sites, suggesting a low connectivity among the sponge communities. The percentage of shared species is higher for the Maltese community, supporting the role of the Sicily Channel as a crossroads between the communities of the eastern and western Mediterranean basins. Here, 55% of the sponges associated to the coral framework are also reported in shallow-water coralligenous assemblages, indicating a high bathymetric connectivity as well as an ecological plasticity allowing these species to occupy a wide range of small, dark refuges.

The term cold-water coral sensu lato groups taxa with a more or less pronounced frame-building ability (e.g. Lophelia pertusa and Madrepora oculata) with forest-forming organisms both on hard (e.g. Leiopathes glaberrima, Parantipathes larix, Callogorgia verticillata and Viminella flagellum) and soft bottoms (e.g. Isidella elongata, Funiculina quadrangularis and Kophobelemnon stelliferum). Cold-water coral species and their occurrence in the Mediterranean Sea are here reviewed and discussed from a biogeographic point of view, considering geographical areas of occurrence and bathymetric distribution. The present-day occurrence of living cold-water corals is then compared to the main deep currents of the Mediterranean Sea. Due to the proper interaction between topography and a combination of cold, oxygenated and trophic-carrying water masses (i.e. Levantine Intermediate Water, deep waters and cascading effects), cold-water coral communities develop in a mosaic-like situation along the main paths that such water masses follow within the basin. Finally, knowledge gaps and future perspectives in the study of cold-water coral occurrence, distribution and biogeography are highlighted. The currently still scarce knowledge on the Mediterranean deep-sea and on the basin-scale distribution of the most important cold-water corals species represents crucial biogeographical information. This gives fundamental indications on the location of the Mediterranean vulnerable deep marine ecosystems for future management strategies.

Biodiversity of coral forests and occurrence of Derelict Fishing Gears (DFGs) have been assessed in canyon systems of the western Ligurian Sea (Dramont, Monaco, Bordighera, Arma di Taggia and Bergeggi) exposed to different anthropic pressures. Arborescent cnidarians were elected as representative species due to their role as structuring organisms and their vulnerability to DFGs damage; hence, their occurrence, density and distribution were correlated to the presence of DFGs. The canyon systems were mapped using a Multibeam Echo Sounder and visually surveyed by means of a Remotely Operated Vehicle between 20 and 445 m depth. With the exception of the Bergeggi canyon system, all sites host rich assemblages of structuring anthozoans, accounting for more than 2000 colonies belonging to 11 species, predominantly Eunicella cavolinii, Paramuricea clavata, Corallium rubrum, Dendrophyllia cornigera, and E. verrucosa. We noticed that the large structuring gorgonians were affected most, with a high number of entangled colonies. DFGs represent 85% of the marine litter found, and are the most serious threat to resident sessile communities, most noticeably in the eastern canyons. Ports, size and fishing effort of local fleets, and socio-economical differences in the fishing activities, strongly influence the fishing footprints. Our study further confirms the role of submarine canyons as site of high coral biodiversity and vulnerability to the mechanical damages by fishing-related littering, calling for adequate management measures to reduce fishery pressure and concomitant DFGs discharge.

Cnidarians are known for their simple body plan and their complex life cycles, involving high regenerative and asexual-reproduction potential. In particular, several asexual reproductive strategies are known for anthozoans, including fragmentation, carried out by tentacles, by groups of polyps or by portions of colonies. Here, we report the first observation of an extensive event of fragmentation in the Mediterranean black coral species Antipathella subpinnata (Antipatharia: Myriopathidae) in rearing conditions. Once detached, fragments lose their polarity and new anchorages are rapidly created with polyps and cnidocysts participating in the adhesion phases. Multiple attachments are frequently observed, with new skeletal plates produced through the expansion of spines. Dendritic spines gradually arise on these new plates. Fragments start to generate numerous new branchlets orientating upward and with a fixed arrangement. In 7 months of monitoring, fragments revealed fast growth rates, up to 1.85 and 1.58 cm month−1, for the whole fragments and new branchlets, respectively. Attachment of black coral fragments has never been recorded in the field; nevertheless, frequent adhesions observed in aquaria suggest that fragmentation could be a successful reproductive strategy in these anthozoans.

Cold-water corals are recognised as a key component of Mediterranean deep-sea ecosystems but the knowledge of their associated biodiversity is still limited. To date, the fauna associated to the Central Mediterranean cold-water coral habitats is the best known (e.g. the cold-water coral provinces of Santa Maria di Leuca, Bari canyon and Strait of Sicily) but such knowledge should be extended to the whole Mediterranean Basin. The combined biodiversity censed so far for Mediterranean cold-water coral habitats and those of adjacent areas (Strait of Gibraltar-Gulf of Cadiz) includes a conspicuous number of species (ca. 520 spp.) with a high representation of sponges (ca. 90 spp.), polychaetes (ca. 90 spp.), cnidarians (ca. 80 spp.), bryozoans (ca. 75 spp.), crustaceans (ca. 60 spp.), molluscs (ca. 50 spp.), fishes (ca. 50 spp.), echinoderms (ca. 20 spp.) and brachiopods (7 spp.). Most species are not univocally linked to cold-water corals, but they benefit from the complex and diverse microhabitats provided by them. There is a clear need to continue the investigation of Mediterranean cold-water coral habitats to fully document the faunistic inventory, biogeographic connections and functions of the many species connected to such emblematic ecoystems of the deep-sea.

The main aims of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are the conservation of natural habitats and their biological resources, together with the promotion of an eco-compatible economic fruition. In Mediterranean MPAs, the main threats for hard bottom benthic communities come from fishing and mass tourism, in terms of boating and SCUBA diving. The Portofino MPA (Ligurian Sea, North-western Mediterranean Sea) is one of the top diving destinations in Europe and currently hosts an average of 40,000 dives per year, which are mainly carried out along coralligenous cliffs, a habitat of European Community interest, particularly vulnerable to mechanical damages due to the fragility of its numerous calcified species. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the effects of recreational SCUBA diving on benthic ecosystems characterised by the presence of red coral and other associated fragile species. The impact was assessed through the analysis of the biomasses of target organisms (Corallium rubrum, Leptopsammia pruvoti, Madracis pharensis, and six species of bryozoans) whose fragments were found in the sediments at the base of the cliff. The amounts of these fragments inside the detritus in highly frequented sites were significantly higher than those measured in undisturbed sites, of up to 10 times. Our data suggested a recurrent mechanical action, with also very recent breakages, as demonstrated by the occurrence of living, freshly detached organisms. Red coral and other calcified species may be sensitive also to natural (heavy storms) and human (fishing) mechanical pressures other than diving: the characterization of these impacts in the study sites, however, indicates divers frequentation as the major contributor to the damages inflicted and suggests the need for specific management measures.

Bazairi, Hocein/0000-0002-1788-0580; Gattuso, Jean-Pierre/0000-0002-4533-4114; Gerovasileiou, Vasilis/0000-0002-9143-7480; Cerrano, Carlo/0000-0001-9580-5546; Turicchia, Eva/0000-0002-8952-9028; Topcu, Nur Eda/0000-0003-2734-2695; Ponti, Massimo/0000-0002-6521-1330; deudero, salud/0000-0001-5584-2801; Ledoux, Jean-Baptiste/0000-0001-8796-6163; Fraschetti, Simonetta/0000-0002-1780-1651; BERTOLINO, Marco/0000-0003-3233-303X; Duarte, Carlos M./0000-0002-1213-1361, WOS: 000499719400001, [No abstract available], postdoctoral contract Juan de la Cierva-Incorporacion [IJCI-2016-29329]; Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovacion y Universidades [PTA2015-10829-I]; Interreg Med Programme [MPA-Adapt 1MED15_3.2_M2_337]; European Regional Development Fund - Foundation Prince Albert II Monaco; European UnionEuropean Union (EU) [689518, FPU15/05457]; Spanish Ministry of EducationSpanish Government [UID/Multi/04423/2013]; FCT - Foundation for Science and TechnologyPortuguese Foundation for Science and Technology; European Regional Development Fund (ERDF)European Union (EU), MV-L was supported by a postdoctoral contract Juan de la Cierva-Incorporacion (IJCI-2016-29329) of Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovacion y Universidades. AI was supported by a Technical staff contract (PTA2015-10829-I) Ayudas Personal Tecnico de Apoyo of Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (2015). Interreg Med Programme (grant number Project MPA-Adapt 1MED15_3.2_M2_337) 85% cofunded by the European Regional Development Fund, the MIMOSA project funded by the Foundation Prince Albert II Monaco and the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement no 689518 (MERCES). DG-G was supported by an FPU grant (FPU15/05457) from the Spanish Ministry of Education. J-BL was partially supported by the Strategic Funding UID/Multi/04423/2013 through national funds provided by FCT - Foundation for Science and Technology and European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), in the framework of the programme PT2020.

Association between habitat structuring organisms and other species has great relevance for ecosystem-based conservation measures. Those occurring in temperate areas, particularly in the upper portion of the continental margin, are mostly unknown or not properly understood because of the difficulty to discriminate co-occurrence and real functional linkages among species. Deep water coral assemblages over the Carloforte Shoal (south-west Sardinia; 180–210 m depth) were investigated using ROV surveys. During the surveys, more than 740 egg-capsules of the spotted catshark Scyliorhinus canicula, identified after hatching experiments in captivity, were found attached exclusively to colonies of the long-living black coral Leiopathes glaberrima. Although based on a spot finding, the results show that coral forests are not only hotspots of biodiversity, but can also serve as nursery grounds for S. canicula. The protection of these millennial coral forests is therefore to be considered a priority.

The aim of this paper is to supply an overview of all historical and recent knowledge on landings, fishing and geographic distribution of the red coral banks along the Italian coasts in order to ma...

A new index of ecological status, named Mesophotic Assemblages Ecological Status (MAES) index, was elaborated on the basis of ROV (Remotely Operated Vehicle) photography and video footage in order to assess the status of mesophotic megabenthic assemblages from hard bottom. The index was tested on seven sites located between 50 and 150 m depth in the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian seas (western Mediterranean Sea). The MAES index considers three main parameters: (i) the community structure (number of megabenthic taxa, percent biotic cover in the basal layer, density of erect species); (ii) the condition of the dominant erect species (average height, percent of colonies with epibiosis/necrosis); (iii) the visible human impact (density of marine litter, including lost fishing gears). Two versions of the index have been elaborated, the complete version (MAES) and the quick version ( q -MAES), which showed comparable results, therefore suggesting the possibility of fastening assessment times. The sensitivity of the MAES index was correlated with the putative human pressure acting upon the site (semi-quantitatively assessed considering fishing effort and coastal urbanization). A standard working protocol related to the evaluation of the MAES index is here proposed with the intent to create an effective monitoring tool for the assessment of the ecological status of mesophotic assemblages on a large scale, as required by the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive. MAES index will enhance the comprehension of the dynamics of mesophotic Mediterranean megabenthic assemblages with respect to human pressures and will also provide marine scientists and managers with a valuable tool specifically designed for the conservation of such vulnerable marine ecosystems.

The gorgonians Paramuricea clavata (Risso, 1826) and Eunicella cavolini (Koch, 1887) are important habitat-forming species within the Mediterranean coralligenous habitats, creating complex, three-dimensional forests that greatly contribute to the underwater landscape of the coastal hard grounds. Dense forests of both species are present within the Portofino Marine Protected Area (Ligurian Sea, NW Mediterranean Sea), showing a distinct bathymetric separation and site-specific differences. Quantitative evidences obtained with a monitoring census conducted in 2016 in 16 sites within the MPA support the existence of a widespread damage on these populations partially due to the mechanical injuries inflicted by recreational and professional demersal fishing gears. Considering all the studied populations, it resulted that 53% of the colonies of P. clavata and 36% of the colonies of E. cavolini were showing traces of impact, of which 10% in P. clavata and 7% in E. cavolini were due to direct entanglements with lost longlines. In the last decades, recurrent massive mortalities related to temperature anomalies and storms, have greatly reduced the gorgonian populations in this area and fishing impact severely affects survived or recovering colonies. Considering the vulnerable status of these species, and the increasing stress due to climate change, a correct management of the anthropic pressures is strongly needed to help preserving these relevant ecosystems.

Trophic relationships significantly influence ecosystem functioning, ultimately affecting populations’ abundance, size structure and distribution. There is still a substantial knowledge gap on the trophic ecology of deep-sea organisms, particularly those living in the mesophotic depths (30–150 m), despite their crucial importance as ecosystem engineers. The trophic ecology of the most common mesophotic black coral species of the Mediterranean Sea, Antipathella subpinnata (Ellis & Solander, 1786), was studied by means of stable isotopes analysis in two seasons. The δ13C and δ15N analysis of the tissue of A. subpinnata, of the sediment, as well as the main planktonic fractions (pico-nanoplankton, microplankton, and mesozooplankton) indicate a diet based on pico-nanoplankton in autumn and mesozooplankton in spring. We calculated a trophic enrichment of 1‰ in δ13C and of 2.5‰ δ15N between prey and predator. Such information contributes towards drawing a complete picture of the pelagic-benthic coupling in the Mediterranean mesophotic coral forests.

Marine bioconstructions are biodiversity-rich, three-dimensional biogenic structures, regulating key ecological functions of benthic ecosystems worldwide. Tropical coral reefs are outstanding for their beauty, diversity and complexity, but analogous types of bioconstructions are also present in temperate seas. The main bioconstructions in the Mediterranean Sea are represented by coralligenous formations, vermetid reefs, deep-sea cold-water corals, Lithophyllum byssoides trottoirs, coral banks formed by the shallow-water corals Cladocora caespitosa or Astroides calycularis, and sabellariid or serpulid worm reefs. Bioconstructions change the morphological and chemicophysical features of primary substrates and create new habitats for a large variety of organisms, playing pivotal roles in ecosystem functioning. In spite of their importance, Mediterranean bioconstructions have not received the same attention that tropical coral reefs have, and the knowledge of their biology, ecology and distribution is still fragmentary. All existing data about the spatial distribution of Italian bioconstructions have been collected, together with information about their growth patterns, dynamics and connectivity. The degradation of these habitats as a consequence of anthropogenic pressures (pollution, organic enrichment, fishery, coastal development, direct physical disturbance), climate change and the spread of invasive species was also investigated. The study of bioconstructions requires a holistic approach leading to a better understanding of their ecology and the application of more insightful management and conservation measures at basin scale, within ecologically coherent units based on connectivity: the cells of ecosystem functioning.

During the last decades, the Mediterranean shallow-water benthic communities have experienced significant changes in taxa composition and distribution. These variations were related to a complex set of anthropogenic stressors as well as to mass mortality events starting from 1999 and related to the current climatic changes. To evaluate the effect of these changes on long-living species with a limited larval dispersal capacity, a quantitative and qualitative monitoring of the shallow-water hard bottom community structure was performed over a pluri-decennial interval of time. The aim of this work was the comparison of the quali-quantitative occurrence and seasonal cycles of several benthic taxa living on a rocky cliff of the Portofino Promontory (eastern Liguria, Mediterranean Sea), from 15 to 20 m depth. The studied community, within a Lithophyllo–Halimedetum tunae association, was analysed by sets of photographs repeated, exactly in the same site, at 25 years of distance (1987/88 and 2012/13). The results suggest that the macroalgal coverage of the surveyed cliff suffered, during the monitored span of time, a significant depletion in quali-quantitative terms, while the overall sponge coverage remained almost unvaried. Nevertheless, a discrete analysis of the most common sponge species present in the study area showed significant variations, with some taxa now more abundant (Axinella spp. and Agelas oroides), some virtually stable (Cliona viridis and the complex of red encrusting sponges), and others drastically depleted (Chondrosia reniformis, Phorbas tenacior, Acanthella acuta, Ircinia spp., Dysidea avara and Petrosia ficiformis). Finally, some sponge species showed clear seasonal cycles indicating recruitment periods and post-recruit mortalities.

Commercially harvested since ancient times, the highly valuable red coral Corallium rubrum (Linnaeus, 1758) is an octocoral endemic to the Mediterranean Sea and adjacent Eastern Atlantic Ocean, where it occurs on rocky bottoms over a wide bathymetric range. Current knowledge is restricted to its shallow populations (15–50 m depth), with comparably little attention given to the deeper populations (50–200 m) that are nowadays the main target of exploitation. In this study, red coral distribution and population structure were assessed in three historically exploited areas (Amalfi, Ischia Island and Elba Island) in the Tyrrhenian Sea (Western Mediterranean Sea) between 50 and 130 m depth by means of ROV during a cruise carried out in the summer of 2010. Red coral populations showed a maximum patch frequency of 0.20 ± 0.04 SD patches·m−1 and a density ranging between 28 and 204 colonies·m−2, with a fairly continuous bathymetric distribution. The highest red coral densities in the investigated areas were found on cliffs and boulders mainly exposed to the east, at the greatest depth, and characterized by medium percentage sediment cover. The study populations contained a high percentage (46% on average) of harvestable colonies (>7 mm basal diameter). Moreover, some colonies with fifth-order branches were also observed, highlighting the probable older age of some components of these populations. The Ischia population showed the highest colony occupancy, density and size, suggesting a better conservation status than the populations at the other study locations. These results indicate that deep dwelling red coral populations in non-stressed or less-harvested areas may diverge from the inverse size-density relationship previously observed in red coral populations with increasing depth.

During the last several decades, the Mediterranean littoral shallow water benthic communities have suffered significant changes in their structure and taxa composition. Despite numerous studies conducted to characterize these changes at various levels, it has always been very difficult to disentangle the effects of natural factors from anthropic ones. The main purpose of this work was to evaluate possible changes, over a 10-year scale, in diversity and abundance of the most representative species of the benthic communities considered to be primarily and potentially affected by natural stressors in a highly protected area. Sets of macro-photographs were taken in 2002–2003 of three sites inside a small bay called Ca’ dell'Oro, which is the “no entry—no take” zone of the Marine Protected Area of Portofino, in order to analyse the structure of the benthic communities at different depths over a short time scale. The same sampling was repeated 10 years later in 2013. In the 10-year span, a significant change in the macroalgal coverage and composition was observed, while the overall richness and coverage of species remained almost unchanged. This process resulted in a significant reduction of the habitat complexity of the three-dimensional algal components. Likewise, a remarkable change in terms of presence and abundance occurred among all zoobenthic components. The benthic communities seem to have suffered from detrimental effects probably caused by climatic events that have been occurring in recent years in the Ligurian Sea.

The IUCN Red List of Threatened SpeciesTM – Regional Assessment, This report presents the conservation status of the anthozoans occurring in the Mediterranean Sea, based on the assessment of 136 species using the IUCN Red List methodology. It identifies those species that are threatened with extinction at the regional level to guide appropriate conservation actions in order to improve their status

Ecological theory predicts that heterogeneous habitats allow more species to co-exist in a given area, but to date, knowledge on relationships between habitat heterogeneity and biodiversity of coral forests in the outer shelf and upper slope along continental margins is rather limited. We investigated biodiversity of coral forests from 8 sites spread over two different geomorphological settings (namely, pinnacles vs . canyons) in the outer shelf along Sardinian continental margin. Using a combination of multivariate statistical analyses, we show here that differences in the composition of coral assemblages among contrasting geomorphological settings were not statistically significant, whereas significant differences emerged among sites within similar geomorphologies (i.e. among pinnacles and among canyons). Our results reveal that environmental and bathymetric factors such as sediment coverage, slope of the substrate, terrain ruggedness, bathymetric positioning index and aspect were important drivers of the observed patterns of coral biodiversity, in both settings. Spatial variability of coral forests' biodiversity is affected by environmental factors that act at the scale of each geomorphological setting (i.e. within each pinnacle and canyon) rather than by the contrasting geomorphological settings themselves. This result allows us to suggest that simple categorization of benthic communities according topographically defined habitat is unlikely to be sufficient for addressing conservation purposes.

The whip-like gorgonian Viminella flagellum (Alcyonacea, Ellisellidae) has an Atlantic-Mediterranean distribution. In Italian seas, the species is a common component of deep-sea rocky environments from the north-western Mediterranean area to the Strait of Sicily. V. flagellum grows in deep habitats, sometimes outlining the environment with dense forests. This work describes its habitat in an area in the southeastern Sardinian waters (central-western Mediterranean Sea), where a dense forest of the species was found. The specimens were filmed and photographed between 120 and 260 m depth with a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV). High-resolution multibeam echosounder (MBES) bathymetry data of the area were acquired and morphometric parameters were derived. These parameters were assumed to be relevant for the distribution of the whip-like gorgonians and were used in an Ecological Niche Factor Analysis (ENFA) to explore the niche and habitat preference of the target species. In order to identify which Eco-geographical variables are useful to predict coral distribution, we used the Maximum Entropy model (MaxEnt). Our results gave a first description of the habitat preference of V. flagellum. Specimens were found in a distinctive habitat, with respect to the overall features of the entire studied area which was characterised by a marked slope in a simple rocky seabed system, within a water depth range of 125–150 m.

Paracoryne huvei is a rare encrusting hydrozoan living in the intertidal zone of the North-western Mediterranean Sea, from the Catalan coast to the Ligurian Sea. In 2014, a large bloom of P. huvei ...

The Mediterranean red coral, Corallium rubrum, is one of the most precious corals worldwide. Below 50 m depth, C. rubrum populations are generally characterised by large and sparse colonies, whereas shallow populations (above 50 m depth) show high densities of small colonies. We show here instead that populations dwelling between 80 and 170 m depth exhibited a continuous range of population density (from 2 to 75 colonies per 0.25 m2), with less than 1% of variance explained by water depth. An inverse relationship between maximum population density and mean colony height was found, suggesting that self-thinning processes may shape population structure. Moreover, demographically young populations composed of small and dense colonies dominated along rocky vertical walls, whereas mature populations characterised by large and sparsely distributed colonies were found only in horizontal beds not covered by sediment. We hypothesise that, in the long term, shallow protected populations should resemble to present deep populations, with sparsely distributed large colonies. Since the density of red coral colonies can decay as a result of self-thinning mechanisms, we advise that future protection strategies should be based also on a measure of red coral spatial coverage instead of population density.

Microboring or euendolithic microorganisms, which colonize and penetrate various carbonate substrates, are abundant in coral reef ecosystems and play a major role in reef carbonate dissolution. A few studies reported the presence of euendoliths in stylasterid coral skeletons but the biological identity, distribution and abundance of these microorganisms remain largely unknown. Observations of over 100 stylasterid colonies, collected in the Indo-Pacific area, revealed for the first time that the association between these corals and euendolith organisms appears to be quite common in shallow tropical waters. The most abundant euendolith was identified as a cryptic stage in the development of the rhodophyte Porphyra (Conchocelis stage). The euendoliths were observed in the skeletons of seven species of three genera (four Stylaster, two Distichopora and one Lepidotheca). The presence of euendoliths inside skeletons conferred a particular colour to the studied stylasterid corals. Distribution and abundance of microborings varied significantly among stylasterid species and among branches of a single colony and so did the colour of their skeletons. Colonization of skeletons and the associated colour distribution were almost uniform in some stylasterids, forming an upward gradually diminishing or sharply limited gradient. This study shows that patterns of euendolith colonization and growth in stylasterid skeletons may depend on the stage of the euendolith development as well as on their environmental requirements such as light exposure.

The Mediterranean black coral fauna includes type species of four antipatharian genera belonging to four different families, therefore phylogenetic studies hold great potential for enhancing systematics within the order. The analysis of six Mediterranean antipatharian species by means of nuclear sequence data of internal transcribed spacer (ITS1 and ITS2) rDNA confirms the separation into different families, as was previously noted on a morphological basis, with a clear distinction of the family Leiopathidae, whose position is supported by a unique number of mesenteries and lack of spines on thicker ramifications. The position of a newly recorded black coral species for the Mediterranean basin belonging to the genus Phanopathes is discussed. Antipathes dichotoma, the type species of the genus Antipathes, on which the order Antipatharia was based, does not group with other members of the family Antipathidae. Supporting a recent finding based on mitochondrial markers, this suggests a critical need for revision of the families that will be impacted by reassignment of this nomenclaturally important taxon.