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Measurements from the InSight lander radiometer acquired after landing are used to characterize the thermophysical properties of the Martian soil in Homestead hollow. This data set is unique as it stems from a high measurement cadence fixed platform studying a simple well-characterized surface, and it benefits from the environmental characterization provided by other instruments. We focus on observations acquired before the arrival of a regional dust storm (near Sol 50), on the furthest observed patch of soil (i.e., ∼3.5 m away from the edge of the lander deck) where temperatures are least impacted by the presence of the lander and where the soil has been least disrupted during landing. Diurnal temperature cycles are fit using a homogenous soil configuration with a thermal inertia of 183 ± 25 J m

International audience; AbstractWe use the Martian surface temperature response to Phobos transits observed next to the InSight lander in Elysium Planitia to constrain the thermal properties of the uppermost layer of regolith. Modeled transit lightcurves validated by solar panel current measurements are used to modify the boundary conditions of a 1D heat conduction model. We test several model parameter sets, varying the thickness and thermal conductivity of the top layer to explore the range of parameters that match the observed temperature response within its uncertainty both during the eclipse as well as the full diurnal cycle. The measurements indicate a thermal inertia (TI) of urn:x-wiley:00948276:media:grl62794:grl62794-math-0002 in the uppermost layer of 0.2–4 mm, significantly smaller than the TI of urn:x-wiley:00948276:media:grl62794:grl62794-math-0003 derived from the diurnal temperature curve. This could be explained by larger particles, higher density, or some or slightly higher amount of cementation in the lower layers.Plain Language SummaryThe Mars moon Phobos passed in front of the Sun from the perspective of the InSight lander on several occasions. The Mars surface temperatures measured by the lander became slightly colder during these transits due to the lower amount of sunlight the surface received at this time. The transits only last 20–35 s and therefore only the very top layer, about 0.3–0.8 mm, of the ground has time to cool significantly. The top layer cools and heats up faster than we expected based on the temperature changes of the day-night cycle, which affects about 4 cm of the ground. Based on this observation we conclude that the material in the top mm of the ground is different from that below. A possible explanation would be an increase of density with depth, a larger fraction of smaller particles such as dust at the top, or a layer where particles are slightly cemented together beginning at 0.2–4 mm below the surface.

Deep convection, as used in meteorology, refers to the rapid ascent of air parcels in Earth’s troposphere driven by the buoyancy generated by phase change in water. Deep convection undergirds some of Earth’s most important and violent weather phenomena and is responsible for many aspects of the observed distribution of energy, momentum, and constituents (particularly water) in Earth’s atmosphere. Deep convection driven by buoyancy generated by the radiative heating of atmospheric dust may be similarly important in the atmosphere of Mars but lacks a systematic description. Here we propose a comprehensive framework for this phenomenon of dusty deep convection (DDC) that is supported by energetic calculations and observations of the vertical dust distribution and exemplary dusty deep convective structures within local, regional, and global dust storm activity. In this framework, DDC is distinct from a spectrum of weaker dusty convective activity because DDC originates from preexisting or concurrently forming mesoscale circulations that generate high surface dust fluxes, oppose large-scale horizontal advective–diffusive processes, and are thus able to maintain higher dust concentrations than typically simulated. DDC takes two distinctive forms. Mesoscale circulations that form near Mars’s highest volcanoes in dust storms of all scales can transport dust to the base of the upper atmosphere in as little as 2 h. In the second distinctive form, mesoscale circulations at low elevations within regional and global dust storm activity generate freely convecting streamers of dust that are sheared into the middle atmosphere over the diurnal cycle.

Data returned from Martian missions have revealed a wide diversity of surface mineralogies, including in geological structures interpreted to be sedimentary or altered by liquid water. These terrains are of great interest because of their potential to document the environment at a time when life may have appeared. Intriguingly, Martian sedimentary rocks show distinctly low thermal inertia values (i.e. 300 - 700 Jm−2K−1s−1/2, indicative of a combination of low thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity, and density). These low values are difficult to reconcile with their competent bedrock morphologies, whereas hundreds of bedrock occurrences, interpreted as volcanic in origin, have been mapped globally and display thermal inertia values > 1200 Jm−2K−1s−1/2. Bedrock thermal inertia values are generally assumed to be driven by their bulk thermal conductivity, which in turn is controlled by their micro- and macro-physical properties (i.e., degree and style of cementation in the case of detritic rocks, horizontal fractures and layering, etc.), and not by their density (well-known from terrestrial analog measurements, and with modest variability) or specific heat capacity (generally uncharacterized for non-basaltic materials below room temperature). In this paper, we demonstrate that specific heat capacity cannot be a potential cause for the differential thermophysical behavior between magmatic and sedimentary rocks through a series of experimental Cp(T) measurements at 100–350 K using differential scanning calorimetry. The results on 20 Martian-relevant minerals investigated in this work indicate that these materials exhibit very similar specific heats, ranging from 0.3–0.7 Jg−1K−1 at 100 K to 0.6–1.7 Jg−1K−1 at 350 K. When used in a Martian thermal model, this range of Cp values translate to very small surface temperature differences, indicating that uncertainty in composition (and its effect on the specific heat) is not a noticeable source of thermal inertia variability for indurated units on Mars. We therefore conclude that the low thermal inertia value of sedimentary rocks compared to magmatic/volcanic rocks is likely due to their low apparent bulk conductivity, which bears information on their internal physical structure. Future work combining the analysis of thermal observations acquired at various local times and seasons will help further characterize this heterogeneity.

International audience; Extensive evidence of landform-scale martian geomorphic changes has been acquired in the last decade, and the number and range of examples of surface activity have increased as more high-resolution imagery has been acquired. Within the present-day Mars climate, wind and frost/ice are the dominant drivers, resulting in large avalanches of material down icy, rocky, or sandy slopes; sediment transport leading to many scales of aeolian bedforms and erosion; pits of various forms and patterned ground; and substrate material carved out from under subliming ice slabs. Due to the ability to collect correlated observations of surface activity and new landforms with relevant environmental conditions with spacecraft on or around Mars, studies of martian geomorphologic activity are uniquely positioned to directly test surface-atmosphere interaction and landform formation/evolution models outside of Earth. In this paper, we outline currently observed and interpreted surface activity occurring within the modern Mars environment, and tie this activity to wind, seasonal surface CO2 frost/ice, sublimation of subsurface water ice, and/or gravity drivers. Open questions regarding these processes are outlined, and then measurements needed for answering these questions are identified. In the final sections, we discuss how many of these martian processes and landforms may provide useful analogs for conditions and processes active on other planetary surfaces, with an emphasis on those that stretch the bounds of terrestrial-based models or that lack terrestrial analogs. In these ways, modern Mars presents a natural and powerful comparative planetology base case for studies of Solar System surface processes, beyond or instead of Earth.

Comprehensive analysis of remote sensing data used to select the Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport (InSight) landing site correctly predicted the atmospheric temperature and pressure profile during entry and descent, the safe landing surface, and the geologic setting of the site. The smooth plains upon which the InSight landing site is located were accurately predicted to be generally similar to the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit landing site with relatively low rock abundance, low slopes, and a moderately dusty surface with a 3–10 m impact fragmented regolith over Hesperian to Early Amazonian basaltic lava flows. The deceleration profile and surface pressure encountered by the spacecraft during entry, descent, and landing compared well (within 1σ) of the envelope of modeled temperature profiles and the expected surface pressure. Orbital estimates of thermal inertia are similar to surface radiometer measurements, and materials at the surface are dominated by poorly consolidated sand as expected. Thin coatings of bright atmospheric dust on the surface were as indicated by orbital albedo and dust cover index measurements. Orbital estimates of rock abundance from shadow measurements in high‐resolution images and thermal differencing indicated very low rock abundance and surface counts show 1–4% area covered by rocks. Slopes at 100 to 5 m length scale measured from orbital topographic and radar data correctly indicated a surface comparably smooth and flat as the two smoothest landing sites (Opportunity and Phoenix). Thermal inertia and radar data indicated the surface would be load bearing as found., Key Points The atmosphere, safe surface, and geologic setting of the landing site were correctly predicted by remote sensing data before landingThe modeled atmospheric temperature profiles and surface pressure were within 1 sigma of the measured deceleration profile and surface pressureInSight’s surface is similar to Spirit’s with low rock abundance, low slopes, moderate dust, and is composed of impact regolith over basalt

The Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport (InSight) spacecraft landed successfully on Mars and imaged the surface to characterize the surficial geology. Here we report on the geology and subsurface structure of the landing site to aid in situ geophysical investigations. InSight landed in a degraded impact crater in Elysium Planitia on a smooth sandy, granule- and pebble-rich surface with few rocks. Superposed impact craters are common and eolian bedforms are sparse. During landing, pulsed retrorockets modified the surface to reveal a near surface stratigraphy of surficial dust, over thin unconsolidated sand, underlain by a variable thickness duricrust, with poorly sorted, unconsolidated sand with rocks beneath. Impact, eolian, and mass wasting processes have dominantly modified the surface. Surface observations are consistent with expectations made from remote sensing data prior to landing indicating a surface composed of an impact-fragmented regolith overlying basaltic lava flows., The InSight spacecraft landed on Mars on November 2018. Here, the authors characterize the surficial geology of the landing site and compare with observations and models derived from remote sensing data prior to landing and from ongoing in situ geophysical investigations of the subsurface.

In its polar layered deposits (PLD), Mars possesses a record of its recent climate, analogous to terrestrial ice sheets containing climate records on Earth. Each PLD is greater than 2 ​km thick and contains thousands of layers, each containing information on the climatic and atmospheric state during its deposition, creating a climate archive. With detailed measurements of layer composition, it may be possible to extract age, accumulation rates, atmospheric conditions, and surface activity at the time of deposition, among other important parameters; gaining the information would allow us to “read” the climate record. Because Mars has fewer complicating factors than Earth (e.g. oceans, biology, and human-modified climate), the planet offers a unique opportunity to study the history of a terrestrial planet’s climate, which in turn can teach us about our own planet and the thousands of terrestrial exoplanets waiting to be discovered. During a two-part workshop, the Keck Institute for Space Studies (KISS) hosted 38 Mars scientists and engineers who focused on determining the measurements needed to extract the climate record contained in the PLD. The group converged on four fundamental questions that must be answered with the goal of interpreting the climate record and finding its history based on the climate drivers. The group then proposed numerous measurements in order to answer these questions and detailed a sequence of missions and architecture to complete the measurements. In all, several missions are required, including an orbiter that can characterize the present climate and volatile reservoirs; a static reconnaissance lander capable of characterizing near surface atmospheric processes, annual accumulation, surface properties, and layer formation mechanism in the upper 50 ​cm of the PLD; a network of SmallSat landers focused on meteorology for ground truth of the low-altitude orbiter data; and finally, a second landed platform to access ~500 ​m of layers to measure layer variability through time. This mission architecture, with two landers, would meet the science goals and is designed to save costs compared to a single very capable landed mission. The rationale for this plan is presented below. In this paper we discuss numerous aspects, including our motivation, background of polar science, the climate science that drives polar layer formation, modeling of the atmosphere and climate to create hypotheses for what the layers mean, and terrestrial analogs to climatological studies. Finally, we present a list of measurements and missions required to answer the four major questions and read the climate record. 1. What are present and past fluxes of volatiles, dust, and other materials into and out of the polar regions? 2. How do orbital forcing and exchange with other reservoirs affect those fluxes? 3. What chemical and physical processes form and modify layers? 4. What is the timespan, completeness, and temporal resolution of the climate history recorded in the PLD?

We provide a historical context of the International Conference on Mars Polar Science and Exploration and summarize the proceedings from the 6th iteration of this meeting. In particular, we identify five key Mars polar science questions based primarily on presentations and discussions at the conference and discuss the overlap between some of those questions. We briefly describe the seven scientific field trips that were offered at the conference, which greatly supplemented conference discussion of Mars polar processes and landforms. We end with suggestions for measurements, modeling, and laboratory and field work that were highlighted during conference discussion as necessary steps to address key knowledge gaps.

Present-day water loss from Mars provides insight into Mars’s past habitability1–3. Its main mechanism is thought to be Jeans escape of a steady hydrogen reservoir sourced from odd-oxygen reactions with near-surface water vapour2, 4,5. The observed escape rate, however, is strongly variable and correlates poorly with solar extreme-ultraviolet radiation flux6–8, which was predicted to modulate escape 9 . This variability has recently been attributed to hydrogen sourced from photolysed middle atmospheric water vapour 10 , whose vertical and seasonal distribution is only partly characterized and understood11–13. Here, we report multi-annual observational estimates of water content and dust and water transport to the middle atmosphere from Mars Climate Sounder data. We provide strong evidence that the transport of water vapour and ice to the middle atmosphere by deep convection in Martian dust storms can enhance hydrogen escape. Planet-encircling dust storms can raise the effective hygropause (where water content rapidly decreases to effectively zero) from 50 to 80 km above the areoid (the reference equipotential surface). Smaller dust storms contribute to an annual mode in water content at 40−50 km that may explain seasonal variability in escape. Our results imply that Martian atmospheric chemistry and evolution can be strongly affected by the meteorology of the lower and middle atmosphere of Mars. Mars Climate Sounder’s multi-annual observations of the vertical distribution of water and dust in the Martian atmosphere show that deep convection from dust storms transports water from the lower to the middle atmosphere, enhancing water loss to space.

The REMS instrument onboard the Mars Science Laboratory rover, Curiosity, has measured ground temperature nearly continuously at hourly intervals for two Mars years. Coverage of the entire diurnal cycle at 1 Hz is available every few martian days. We compare these measurements with predictions of surface atmosphere thermal models to derive the apparent thermal inertia and thermally derived albedo along the rovers traverse after accounting for the radiative effects of atmospheric water ice during fall and winter, as is necessary to match the measured seasonal trend. The REMS measurements can distinguish between active sand, other loose materials, mudstone, and sandstone based on their thermophysical properties. However, the apparent thermal inertias of bedrock dominated surfaces [approx. 350-550 J m(exp. -2) K(exp. -1 s(exp. -1/2 )] are lower than expected. We use rover imagery and the detailed shape of the diurnal ground temperature curve to explore whether lateral or vertical heterogeneity in the surface materials within the sensor footprint might explain the low inertias. We find that the bedrock component of the surface can have a thermal inertia as high as 650-1700 J m(exp. -2) K(exp. -1) s(exp. -1/2) for mudstone sites and approx. 700 J m(exp. -2) K(exp. -1) s(exp. - 1/2) for sandstone sites in models runs that include lateral and vertical mixing. Although the results of our forward modeling approach may be non-unique, they demonstrate the potential to extract information about lateral and vertical variations in thermophysical properties from temporally resolved measurements of ground temperature.

The InSight (Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport) mission will perform the first Martian in situ heat flow measurement by deploying the Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package (HP3) onto the Martian surface. In order to estimate the heat flow coming from the planetary interior, HP3 will measure the local subsurface thermal gradient as well as the local thermal conductivity to a depth of up to 5 m. From these measurements, local heat flow can be determined, but this will in general differ from the heat flow emanating from the planetary interior due to atmosphere-induced perturbations. Here we quantify heat flow perturbation induced by dust loading of the Martian atmosphere using dust opacity data obtained by the Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity. Dust opacity data span the time period between Mars year (MY) 27 and MY 32, thus incorporating the global dust storm event of MY 28 as a signal. We consider two end-member cases for the regolith thermal conductivity and find that the background planetary heat flow is superposed by atmosphere-induced perturbations of less than 1.5 mW m−2 at depths below 2 m if regolith thermal conductivity is low and around 0.025 W m−1 K−1 on average. If thermal conductivity is high and around 0.05 W m−1 K−1 on average, perturbations are less than 2.5 mW m−2 at depths below 3 m. Overall, the influence of interannual variability on subsurface heat flow is found to be moderate following a global dust storm. Considerably smaller perturbations are introduced by regional dust storms, which are of shorter duration and smaller magnitude.

Observations of recurring slope lineae (RSL) from the High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment have been interpreted as present-day, seasonally variable liquid water flows; however, orbital spectroscopy has not confirmed the presence of liquid H2O, only hydrated salts. Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) temperature data and a numerical heat transfer model definitively constrain the amount of water associated with RSL. Surface temperature differences between RSL-bearing and dry RSL-free terrains are consistent with no water associated with RSL and, based on measurement uncertainties, limit the water content of RSL to at most 0.5–3 wt %. In addition, distinct high thermal inertia regolith signatures expected with crust-forming evaporitic salt deposits from cyclical briny water flows are not observed, indicating low water salinity (if any) and/or low enough volumes to prevent their formation. Alternatively, observed salts may be preexisting in soils at low abundances (i.e., near or below detection limits) and largely immobile. These RSL-rich surfaces experience ~100 K diurnal temperature oscillations, possible freeze/thaw cycles and/or complete evaporation on time scales that challenge their habitability potential. The unique surface temperature measurements provided by THEMIS are consistent with a dry RSL hypothesis or at least significantly limit the water content of Martian RSL.

While the detection of CO2 ice has only been reported outside the Martian polar regions at very high elevation (i.e., Elysium, Olympus Mons, and the Tharsis Montes), nighttime surface observations by the Mars Climate Sounder on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter document the widespread occurrence of atmospherically corrected ground temperatures consistent with the presence of extensive carbon dioxide frost deposits in the dusty low thermal inertia units at middle/low latitudes. Thermal infrared emissivities, interpreted in conjunction with mass balance modeling, suggest micrometer size CO2 ice crystals forming optically thin layers never exceeding a few hundreds of microns in thickness (i.e., 10−2 kg m−2) locally, which is insufficient to generate a measurable diurnal pressure cycle (<

The thermal inertia of a planetary surface is a compound function of the regolith thermal conductivity, density and specific heat. On planetary bodies with atmospheres, the conductivity of the surface must account for the contributions of both the solid component of the surface as well as that of atmospheric gas found in the interstitial pore spaces. Today, variations in thermal inertia and thermal conductivity on Mars affect the size and timing of areas for which surface temperatures exceed the melting point temperature of water, which is a necessary-but-not-sufficient prerequisite for surface liquid water. Models of past Mars climate, when the atmosphere may have been significantly thicker than at present, have largely neglected the potential role of interstitial atmospheric gas as a thermally conducting element of the ‘surface,’ though we show here that such underestimation of surface conductivity and thermal inertia has no appreciable effect on models of past Mars climate. In more recent Mars history, changes in obliquity have a similar effect of inflating or collapsing the Mars atmosphere, though to a lesser extent. Orbital changes will also modify surface thermal properties, leading to variations in surface conductivity (and thermal inertia) on 105–107 year cycles. We show that these variations, in fact, should not be neglected. We propose an obliquity-driven cycle of surface evolution that drives variability in surface thermal inertia, and suggest that the potential for liquid water at the surface should increase with time following large, positive excursions in Mars' obliquity.

International audience; Although not the prime focus of the InSight mission, the near-surface geology and physical properties investigations provide critical information for both placing the instruments (seismometer and heat flow probe with mole) on the surface and for understanding the nature of the shallow subsurface and its effect on recorded seismic waves. Two color cameras on the lander will obtain multiple stereo images of the surface and its interaction with the spacecraft. Images will be used to identify the geologic materials and features present, quantify their areal coverage, help determine the basic geologic evolution of the area, and provide ground truth for orbital remote sensing data. A radiometer will measure the hourly temperature of the surface in two spots, which will determine the thermal inertia of the surface materials present and their particle size and/or cohesion. Continuous measurements of wind speed and direction offer a unique opportunity to correlate dust devils and high winds with eolian changes imaged at the surface and to determine the threshold friction wind stress for grain motion on Mars. During the first two weeks after landing, these investigations will support the selection of instrument placement locations that are relatively smooth, flat, free of small rocks and load bearing. Soil mechanics parameters and elastic properties of near surface materials will be determined from mole penetration and thermal conductivity measurements from the surface to 3–5 m depth, the measurement of seismic waves during mole hammering, passive monitoring of seismic waves, and experiments with the arm and scoop of the lander (indentations, scraping and trenching). These investigations will determine and test the presence and mechanical properties of the expected 3–17 m thick fragmented regolith (and underlying fractured material) built up by impact and eolian processes on top of Hesperian lava flows and determine its seismic properties for the seismic investigation of Mars’ interior.

International audience; This article discusses relevant physical properties of the regolith at the Mars InSight landing site as understood prior to landing of the spacecraft. InSight will land in the northern lowland plains of Mars, close to the equator, where the regolith is estimated to be ≥3--5 m thick. These investigations of physical properties have relied on data collected from Mars orbital measurements, previously collected lander and rover data, results of studies of data and samples from Apollo lunar missions, laboratory measurements on regolith simulants, and theoretical studies. The investigations include changes in properties with depth and temperature. Mechanical properties investigated include density, grain-size distribution, cohesion, and angle of internal friction. Thermophysical properties include thermal inertia, surface emissivity and albedo, thermal conductivity and diffusivity, and specific heat. Regolith elastic properties not only include parameters that control seismic wave velocities in the immediate vicinity of the Insight lander but also coupling of the lander and other potential noise sources to the InSight broadband seismometer. The related properties include Poisson’s ratio, P- and S-wave velocities, Young’s modulus, and seismic attenuation. Finally, mass diffusivity was investigated to estimate gas movements in the regolith driven by atmospheric pressure changes. Physical properties presented here are all to some degree speculative. However, they form a basis for interpretation of the early data to be returned from the InSight mission.

In this work, we compare the thermophysical properties and particle sizes derived from the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) rover's Ground Temperature Sensor (GTS) of the Bagnold dunes, specifically Namib dune, to those derived orbitally from Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS), ultimately linking these measurements to ground-truth particle sizes determined from Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI) images. In general, we find that all three datasets report consistent particle sizes for the Bagnold dunes (~110-350 microns, and are within measurement and model uncertainties), indicating that particle sizes of homogeneous materials determined from orbit are reliable. Furthermore, we examine the effects of two physical characteristics that could influence the modeled thermal inertia and particle sizes, including: 1) fine-scale (cm-m scale) ripples, and 2) thin layering of indurated/armored materials. To first order, we find small scale ripples and thin (approximately centimeter scale) layers do not significantly affect the determination of bulk thermal inertia from orbital thermal data determined from a single nighttime temperature. Modeling of a layer of coarse or indurated material reveals that a thin layer (< ~5 mm; similar to what was observed by the Curiosity rover) would not significantly change the observed thermal properties of the surface and would be dominated by the properties of the underlying material. Thermal inertia and grain sizes of relatively homogeneous materials derived from nighttime orbital data should be considered as reliable, as long as there are not significant sub-pixel anisothermality effects (e.g. lateral mixing of multiple thermophysically distinct materials)., submitted to the Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets

The selection of the Discovery Program InSight landing site took over four years from initial identification of possible areas that met engineering constraints, to downselection via targeted data from orbiters (especially Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) Context Camera (CTX) and High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) images), to selection and certification via sophisticated entry, descent and landing (EDL) simulations. Constraints on elevation ( ${\leq}{-}2.5\ \mbox{km}$ for sufficient atmosphere to slow the lander), latitude (initially 15°S–5°N and later 3°N–5°N for solar power and thermal management of the spacecraft), ellipse size (130 km by 27 km from ballistic entry and descent), and a load bearing surface without thick deposits of dust, severely limited acceptable areas to western Elysium Planitia. Within this area, 16 prospective ellipses were identified, which lie ∼600 km north of the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) rover. Mapping of terrains in rapidly acquired CTX images identified especially benign smooth terrain and led to the downselection to four northern ellipses. Acquisition of nearly continuous HiRISE, additional Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS), and High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) images, along with radar data confirmed that ellipse E9 met all landing site constraints: with slopes