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International audience; Developing relevant decision-support tools for policymakers to support large-scale implementation of climate-smart agriculture in the Global South is challenging given the great diversity in biophysical, socio-technical, and organizational conditions. This article describes a pilot exercise inspired by the recommendation domain literature that aimed at mapping, beyond “classical” biophysical and socio-technical variables, the institutional variables (i.e., the existence of policy incentives in national policy documents) that could influence the large-scale implementation of climate-smart agricultural practices. Four practices were considered: cereal-legume intercropping, fodder legume cultivation, farmer managed natural regeneration (FMNR) of Parkia biglobosa, and crop residue mulching. The biophysical and socio-technical variables were classified based on thresholds identified in the literature and mapped with a geographic information system. The policy documents considered were investment plans, adaptation plans for climate change, nationally determined contributions, and Technology Needs Assessments project reports. Sixteen policy documents for four countries were thoroughly reviewed and classified as unfavorable, intermediate, and favorable for the four selected practices, based on a decision tree built for that purpose. Our analysis shows that areas where biophysical, socio-technical, and institutional variables are aligned for the four practices considered are small, particularly for fodder legume cultivation and crop residue mulching. For cereal-legume intercropping, incentives from national policies strongly differ from one country to another while for FMNR of Parkia biglobosa policies are more homogeneously conducive across countries. Nonetheless, it was possible to identify areas where biophysical, socio-technical, and institutional dimensions of the transition toward climate-smart agriculture (CSA) were aligned, for example, cereal-legume intercropping in southern Mali. The delineating of favorable and unfavorable areas allows specific recommendations to be made for policymakers as levers for action differ in favorable, intermediate, and unfavorable zones. Based on the exploration made for the four practices, this study highlights the need for further articulations from local to national scale to implement CSA.

West African livestock keepers need forage sources to feed animals without degrading the local fragile ecosystems. Establishing high-density forage protein banks for animal feeding was evaluated in three contrasting zones of Burkina Faso. The agronomic performance of the fodder species Leucaena leucocephala (leucaena) and Morus alba (mulberry), planted for intensive forage production (25,000 plants/ha) was monitored through plant height (HEI), stem diameter (DIA), branch number (BrN) and branch length (BrL). Once plots were considered established (at 7 months) all trees were coppiced. Biomass yield subsequently was monitored over three bi-monthly harvests which began approximately 1 year after planting. For both species, a highly significant interaction between experimental site and dates was observed for all variables except BrN. Average HEI (103 cm) were similar. DIA (7 +/- 0.4 cm) and BrL (55 +/- 2.2 cm) were higher in mulberry (6 +/- 0.1 and 29 +/- 1.0 cm, respectively), whereas the BrN remained higher in leucaena (7 +/- 0.2 vs. 2 +/- 0.1 cm). No differences were observed in HEI between sites from June to August. However, from September to October, both species displayed a stronger growth rate at site 1. The biomass yields (t DM/ha/year) in three consecutive harvests were lower than values reported in other tropical regions (1.8 +/- 1.2 and 8.1 +/- 3.9, for mulberry and leucaena, respectively). Differences between sites were due mainly to soil properties, rainfall pattern and termite attacks. This study demonstrated that L. leucocephala and M. alba, planted in high-density forage banks, successfully establish and have high forage yield across several edaphoclimatic conditions in Burkina Faso. Our findings suggest that this technology could significantly contribute to livestock feeding systems in the region, thus reducing negative effects of over-grazing on landscape degradation.

Face au défi majeur de la croissance démographique mondiale, le secteur agricole se doit de concilier une augmentation de la production alimentaire et une diminution de son impact environnemental. L’intégration agriculture-élevage (IAE) mise en œuvre dans les exploitations familiales mixtes à faible niveau d’intrants peut être un moyen d’y parvenir. L’un des grands principes de l’IAE est l’utilisation de ressources produites par les différents ateliers de l’exploitation pour la conduite des autres ateliers. L’IAE se construit autour de trois grandes pratiques : la traction animale, le stockage de fourrage et la production de fumure organique. L’objectif de cette étude a été d’analyser l’effet de ces pratiques sur l’autonomie, le recyclage et l’efficience énergétique des exploitations familiales mixtes. Pour ce faire, les flux d’énergie brute de huit exploitations familiales mixtes de la zone cotonnière de l’ouest du Burkina Faso, suivies sur une période de 20 mois, ont été analysés grâce à la méthode d’analyse de réseau écologique (ecological network analysis [ENA]). Les résultats ont montré que le stockage de fourrage et la production de fumure organique ont permis aux exploitations d’augmenter leur recyclage et leur autonomie, et d’acquérir une meilleure efficience énergétique. La méthode ENA met en lumière les caractéristiques et les performances d’exploitations de différents types (agriculteurs, éleveurs, agroéleveurs) et évalue l’apport des pratiques de l’IAE sur ces performances. Il apparaît cependant qu’il existe des marges de manœuvre sur le niveau de mise en œuvre des pratiques d’IAE dans les exploitations familiales mixtes de la zone cotonnière de l’ouest du Burkina Faso permettant d’améliorer le recyclage de l’énergie.

L’utilisation de fumures organiques dans les systemes de polyculture-elevage d’Afrique de l’Ouest est essentielle pour leur durabilite et leur productivite. Certains paysans mettent en place des modes de gestion des fumures organiques atypiques. Sont-ils des sources potentielles d’innovation ? Dans l’ouest du Burkina Faso, nous avons repere differents modes atypiques de gestion des fumures organiques, analyse les logiques d’action des paysans et decrit les savoirs locaux sous-jacents. L’evaluation multicritere des performances des systemes atypiques, comparees a celles des systemes dominants nous a permis d’apprehender leur durabilite et d’identifier des modes de gestion des fumures organiques originaux (marchandisation versus diversification de la production). Sans etre transposables, ces pratiques atypiques sont source d’enseignements a mobiliser pour la co-conception de modes de gestion des fumures organiques innovants bases sur les connaissances locales.

La co-conception de systèmes agricoles innovants est une piste prometteuse pour répondre au défi de l’innovation, notamment pour les exploitations agricoles familiales africaines confrontées à de multiples changements. Mais il faut penser à la place et aux rôles tenus par de multiples acteurs (agriculteurs, conseillers, chercheurs) pour produire les changements souhaités par toutes les parties, et donc réfléchir à la question du partenariat dans le processus. Cet article présente la démarche de conception en partenariat de systèmes agricoles innovants (CPSAI) élaborée entre 2005 et 2015 dans l’ouest du Burkina Faso, notamment sur la gestion de la fumure organique des cultures. La CPSAI s’appuie sur un dispositif partenarial formalisé et sur une démarche progressive en trois phases itératives : (1) exploration et formalisation du partenariat, (2) conceptions et test des options de changement, (3) bilan et désengagement. Les résultats obtenus montrent que l’innovation est plus efficace et durable quand elle est le produit d’un travail partenarial., Co-design of innovative agricultural systems is a promising way to meet the challenge of innovation, particularly for African family farms facing multiple changes. But we must think of the place and role of multiple stakeholders (farmers, advisors, researchers) to produce the desired change by all parties, so consider the issue of partnership in the process. This paper presents the process for the design of innovative farming systems (PDIFS) developed between 2005 and 2015 in western Burkina Faso, including the management of manure. PDIFS uses a formalized partnership system and a progressive approach in three iterative phases: (1) exploration and formalization of partnership; (2) co-designs and testing options for change; (3) review and disengagement. The results show that innovation is more effective and sustainable when it is the product of a collective and partnership work.

Eco-efficiency is a useful guide to dairy farm sustainability analysis aimed at increasing output (physical or value added) and minimizing environmental impacts (EIs). Widely used partial eco-efficiency ratios (EIs per some functional unit, e.g. kg milk) can be problematic because (i) substitution possibilities between EIs are ignored, (ii) multiple ratios can complicate decision making and (iii) EIs are not usually associated with just the functional unit in the ratio’s denominator. The objective of this study was to demonstrate a ‘global’ eco-efficiency modelling framework dealing with issues (i) to (iii) by combining Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) data and the multiple-input, multiple-output production efficiency method Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA). With DEA each dairy farm’s outputs and LCA-derived EIs are aggregated into a single, relative, bounded, dimensionless eco-efficiency score, thus overcoming issues (i) to (iii). A novelty of this study is that a model providing a number of additional desirable properties was employed, known as the Range Adjusted Measure (RAM) of inefficiency. These properties altogether make RAM advantageous over other DEA models and are as follows. First, RAM is able to simultaneously minimize EIs and maximize outputs. Second, it indicates which EIs and/or outputs contribute the most to a farm’s eco-inefficiency. Third it can be used to rank farms in terms of eco-efficiency scores. Thus, non-parametric rank tests can be employed to test for significant differences in terms of eco-efficiency score ranks between different farm groups. An additional DEA methodology was employed to ‘correct’ the farms’ eco-efficiency scores for inefficiencies attributed to managerial factors. By removing managerial inefficiencies it was possible to detect differences in eco-efficiency between farms solely attributed to uncontrollable factors such as region. Such analysis is lacking in previous dairy studies combining LCA with DEA. RAM and the ‘corrective’ methodology were demonstrated with LCA data from French specialized dairy farms grouped by region (West France, Continental France) and feeding strategy (regardless of region). Mean eco-efficiency score ranks were significantly higher for farms with 30% maize in the total forage area before correcting for managerial inefficiencies. Mean eco-efficiency score ranks were higher for West than Continental farms, but significantly higher only after correcting for managerial inefficiencies. These results helped identify the eco-efficiency potential of each region and feeding strategy and could therefore aid advisors and policy makers at farm or region/sector level. The proposed framework helped better measure and understand (dairy) farm eco-efficiency, both within and between different farm groups.

International audience; Traditionally, cereal crop harvest residues are communally grazed by the ruminant herds of villagers and transhumant pastoralists in the agro-pastoral systems which predominate in the savannah zone of West Africa. We analysed the impact of the private use of crop residues by individual farmers on crop and livestock productivity at three scales: the field, farm, and village. We collected data in the village of Koumbia, located in the Sudanian region of Burkina Faso. Three types of farmers were identified: resource-poor farmers, predominantly livestock farmers, and resource-rich farmers. The trade-offs between different uses and users of cereal crop residues at the three scales were analysed through field surveys and a simple model of biomass flows. We considered current communal use practices and two alternative scenarios of private cereal crop residue use: (i) for composting (fertility scenario) and (ii) as fodder (fodder scenario). Our analysis of current practices confirmed that farmers left around 80% of cereal crop residues on their fields. Soil fertility for cereal production therefore could be improved through crop residue management at the farm scale. We also found that communal grazing benefited farmers with high numbers of livestock. Maize grain production at the farm scale was improved in both of the simulated scenarios. Yet these scenarios had a negative impact on fodder self-sufficiency at the village scale, and on the N balance of the savannah-derived rangelands. The negative impact was greater in the fertility scenario than the fodder stock scenario. Increasing cereal productivity at the farm scale cannot be achieved without considering the trade-offs involved at the village scale. Changes in practices will require negotiations between the different types of farmers involved. Participatory innovation platforms with discussion support tools like the model presented in our study can facilitate such negotiations.

Face au double défi du secteur de l’élevage qui devra répondre à l’augmentation future de la demande en protéines animales tout en réduisant ses impacts environnementaux, l’analyse énergétique fossile apparaît comme une méthode d’évaluation pertinente. Elle permet de fournir à la fois des références sur les consommations et l’efficience d’utilisation de l’énergie fossile, mais également sur les voies d’intensification écologique de ces systèmes. Son application dans le cadre de deux précédentes études à des systèmes d’élevage en Afrique de l’Ouest a nécessité des améliorations méthodologiques. Celles-ci ont concerné la prise en compte de la mobilité des troupeaux, l’analyse à l’échelle du troupeau afin de produire des comparaisons pertinentes entre systèmes, l’affectation d’un coût en énergie fossile au travail humain et animal et l’ouverture du panel des productions aux effluents et à la traction animale produite. D’autres perspectives d’amélioration, liées notamment à l’étude d’autres systèmes d’élevage et de nouveaux territoires, sont également proposées., Fossil energy analysis appears as a relevant assessment method considering the joint challenges of livestock that will meet future growth in demand for animal protein while reducing its environmental impact,. This method enables to provide references about both fossil energy use and efficiency use by livestock systems and to design ecological intensification ways. Two previous studies dealing with its application on livestock systems from West Africa required methodological improvements. They concerned the inclusion of herd mobility, the assessment at herd level to provide a relevant comparison between different systems, the quantification of fossil energy cost of human and animal labor and accounting orf manure and animal traction as herd products. Other prospects for methodological improvement, especially concerning investigations of other livestock systems and territories, are also suggested.

Ongoing intensification and specialisation of livestock production lead to increasing volumes of manure to be managed, which are a source of the greenhouse gases (GHGs) methane (CH 4) and nitrous oxide (N 2O). Net emissions of CH 4 and N 2O result from a multitude of microbial activities in the manure environment. Their relative importance depends not only on manure composition and local management practices with respect to treatment, storage and field application, but also on ambient climatic conditions. The diversity of livestock production systems, and their associated manure management, is discussed on the basis of four regional cases (Sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, China and Europe) with increasing levels of intensification and priorities with respect to nutrient management and environmental regulation. GHG mitigation options for production systems based on solid and liquid manure management are then presented, and potentials for positive and negative interactions between pollutants, and between management practices, are discussed. The diversity of manure properties and environmental conditions necessitate a modelling approach for improving estimates of GHG emissions, and for predicting effects of management changes for GHG mitigation, and requirements for such a model are discussed. Finally, we briefly discuss drivers for, and barriers against, introduction of GHG mitigation measures for livestock production. There is no conflict between efforts to improve food and feed production, and efforts to reduce GHG emissions from manure management. Growth in livestock populations are projected to occur mainly in intensive production systems where, for this and other reasons, the largest potentials for GHG mitigation may be found.