Search

Porous platinum is a frequently used catalyst material in electrosynthesis and a robust broadband absorber in thermoelectrics. Pore size distribution and localization determine its properties by a large extent. However, the pore formation mechanism during the growth of the material remains unclear. In this work we elucidate the mechanism underlying electrochemical growth of nanoporous platinum layers and its control by ionic concentration and current density during electrolysis. The electrode kinetics and reduction steps of PtCl4 on platinum electrodes are investigated by cyclic voltammetry and impedance measurements. Cyclic voltammograms show three reduction steps: two steps relate to the platinum cation reduction, and one step relates to the hydrogen reduction. Hydrogen is not involved in the reduction of PtCl4, however it enables the formation of nanopores in the layers. These findings contribute to the understanding of electrochemical growth of nanoporous platinum layers in isopropanol with thickness of 100 nm to 500 nm. Porous platinum is a frequently used electrocatalyst and thermoelectric material, but the growth mechanism of nanopores in platinum layers is still not fully understood. Here, the authors show that hydrogen is not involved in the reduction process of PtCl4, however it enables the formation of nanopores.

We describe the preparation and properties of bilayers of graphene‐ and multi‐walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) as an alternative to conventionally used platinum‐based counter electrode for dye‐sensitized solar cells (DSSC). The counter electrodes were prepared by a simple and easy‐to‐implement double self‐assembly process. The preparation allows for controlling the surface roughness of electrode in a layer‐by‐layer deposition. Annealing under N2 atmosphere improves the electrode's conductivity and the catalytic activity of graphene and MWCNTs to reduce the I3 − species within the electrolyte of the DSSC. The performance of different counter‐electrodes is compared for ZnO photoanode‐based DSSCs. Bilayer electrodes show higher power conversion efficiencies than monolayer graphene electrodes or monolayer MWCNTs electrodes. The bilayer graphene (bottom)/MWCNTs (top) counter electrode‐based DSSC exhibits a maximum power conversion efficiency of 4.1 % exceeding the efficiency of a reference DSSC with a thin film platinum counter electrode (efficiency of 3.4 %). In addition, the double self‐assembled counter electrodes are mechanically stable, which enables their recycling for DSSCs fabrication without significant loss of the solar cell performance., The straightforward, low‐temperature, and cheap production of metal‐free counter electrodes for dye‐sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) is presented. The self‐assembly of carbon materials such as graphene flakes and multi‐walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) leads to high‐performing counter electrodes. Recycling of counter electrodes in DSSCs is demonstrated and compared for different electrolyte compositions.

Drug loaded magnetic microspheres (MMS) can be magnetically guided to a target area within the body, where the pharmaceutical agent is released passively. For a faster release, the microspheres have to be disintegrated actively, e.g., by an increase of the temperature of the MMS. In the here presented study, poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) microspheres were prepared. Magnetic nanoparticles with high magnetic heating performance and the drug camptothecin were embedded into the PLGA matrix. Resulting microspheres were characterized by means of dynamic light scattering, scanning electron microscopy, magnetometry, magnetic calorimetry, and UV/Vis spectrophotometry for determination of the drug release as a function of time and temperature. The MMS diameter is about 1.5 µm and the MMS show a content of magnetic material of up to 16 wt% and a drug loading of about 0.5 wt%. The MMS have a specific heating power of 161 W/gMMS, which enables sufficient magnetic heating for enforced drug release from the MMS in tissue concentrations of 2% by mass. Depending on the applied temperatures and the used PLGA type, the loaded drug is released within hours to days and a temperature increase from 37 to 43 °C leads to a significant faster drug release. The principle of magnetically triggered drug release is demonstrated by magnetic hyperthermia induced release of a drug from the MMS.

We propose and experimentally demonstrate the implementation of lithography-free nanoapertures on optical fibers. By sputtering metallic nanofilms onto the end face of step index fibers that contai...

In this study, laser-treated polycrystalline Si (pc-Si) wafers, fabricated by wire sawing of hot-pressed ingots sintered from Si powder, have been investigated. As-cut wafers and those with high-quality thin Si layers deposited on top of them by e-beam have been subjected to laser irradiation to clarify typical trends of structural modifications caused by laser treatments. Moreover, possibility to use laser-treated Si powder-based substrates for fabrication of advanced Si structures has been analysed. It is established that (i) Si powder-based wafers with thicknesses ~180 μm can be fully (from the front to back side) or partly (subsurface region) remelted by a diode laser and grain sizes in laser-treated regions can be increased; (ii) a high-quality top layer can be fabricated by crystallization of an additional a-Si layer deposited by e-beam evaporation on top of the pc-Si; and (iii) silicon nanowires can be formed by metal-assisted wet chemical etching (MAWCE) of polished Si powder-based wafers and as-cut wafers irradiated with medium laser power, while a surface texturing on the as-cut pc-Si wafers occur, and no nanowires can form in the region subject to a liquid phase crystallization (LPC) caused by high-power laser treatments.

The optical Vernier effect consists of overlapping responses of a sensing and a reference interferometer with slightly shifted interferometric frequencies. The beating modulation thus generated presents high magnified sensitivity and resolution compared to the sensing interferometer, if the two interferometers are slightly out of tune with each other. However, the outcome of such a condition is a large beating modulation, immeasurable by conventional detection systems due to practical limitations of the usable spectral range. We propose a method to surpass this limitation by using a few-mode sensing interferometer instead of a single-mode one. The overlap response of the different modes produces a measurable envelope, whilst preserving an extremely high magnification factor, an order of magnification higher than current state-of-the-art performances. Furthermore, we demonstrate the application of that method in the development of a giant sensitivity fibre refractometer with a sensitivity of around 500 µm/RIU (refractive index unit) and with a magnification factor over 850.

International audience; We report the wet chemical synthesis of mesoporous NiO nanostars (NS) as photocathode material for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). The growth mechanism of NiO NS as a new morphology of NiO is assessed by TEM and spectroscopic investigations. The NiO NS are obtained upon annealing of preformed beta-Ni(OH)(2) into pristine NiO with low defect concentrations and favorable electronic configuration for dye sensitization. The NiO NS consist of fibers self-assembled from nanoparticles yielding a specific surface area of 44.9 m(2) g(-1). They possess a band gap of 3.83 eV and can be sensitized by molecular photosensitizers bearing a range of anchoring groups, e.g. carboxylic acid, phosphonic acid, and pyridine. The performance of NiO NS-based photocathodes in photoelectrochemical application is compared to that of other NiO morphologies, i.e. nanoparticles and nanoflakes, under identical conditions. Sensitization of NiO NS with the benchmark organic dye P1 leads to p-DSSCs with a high photocurrent up to 3.91 mA cm(-2) whilst the photoelectrochemical activity of the NiO NS photocathode in aqueous medium in the presence of an irreversible electron acceptor is reflected by generation of a photocurrent up to 23 mu A cm(-2).

Raman spectroscopy in combination with appropriate sample preparation strategies, for example, enrichment of bacteria on metal surfaces, has been proven to be a promising approach for rapidly diagnosing infectious diseases. Unfortunately, the fabrication of the required chip substrates is usually very challenging due to the lack of feasible instruments that can be used for quality control in the surface modification process. The intrinsically weak Raman signal of the biomolecules, employed for the enrichment of the micro-organisms on the chip surface, does not allow for monitoring of the successful immobilization by means of a Raman spectroscopic approach. Within this contribution, we demonstrate how a simple modification of a plain aluminum surface enables enhancement (or a decrease, if desired) of the Raman signal of molecules deposited on that surface. The manipulation of the Raman signal strength is achieved via exploiting interference effects that occur, if the highly reflective aluminum surface is modified with thin layers of transparent dielectrics like aluminum oxide. The thicknesses of these layers were determined by theoretical considerations and calculations. For the first time, it is shown that the interference effects can be used for the detection of biomolecules as well by investigating the siderophore ferrioxamine B. The observed degree of enhancement was approximately 1 order of magnitude. Moreover, the employed aluminum/aluminum oxide layers have been thoroughly characterized using atomic force and scanning electron microscopy as well as X-ray reflectometry and UV-Vis measurements.

This paper describes the deposition of superconductive Nb-N thin films in a metal-organic plasma-enhanced atomic layer deposition process using (tert-butylimido)-tris (diethylamino)-niobium and hydrogen plasma as precursors. In extension of our previous work, which investigated the possibility to deposit superconducting Nb-N, we systematically investigated the influence of different plasma parameters on superconducting and morphological properties of the niobium nitride thin film formed during the process. An initial increase of the duration of the plasma dose led to higher transitions temperatures and critical current densities, the optimum being a plasma dose time of 50 s. By decreasing plasma pressure, the resistivity at room temperature decreased, while the transition temperature increased. In addition, Nb-N thin films were deposited onto several substrates such as silicon, thermally grown silica, magnesium oxide (MgO), and r-plane sapphire. ${\rm{T}}_{{\rm{C}}}$ values from 6.2 K up to 14 K were achieved independently of the substrate materials. However, films deposited on MgO showed lower ${\rm{T}}_{{\rm{C}}}$ values. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy measurement revealed the presence of niobium nitride but also of niobium oxide and oxy-nitride components in the films as well as the existence of a high amount of incorporated carbon impurities. X-ray diffraction measurements revealed two significant reflexes, which could be attributed to niobium nitride only. No crystalline niobium oxide or niobium oxynitride was detected. Thus, the films consisted of a matrix of polycrystalline Nb-N and amorphous or microcrystalline grains of different niobium oxide and oxynitride phases. Due to the fact that the deposited material showed superconductivity especially for ultrathin layers with thicknesses in the nanometer range, these films may be suitable for superconducting nanowire single photon detectors.

We report on the influence of sputtering parameters on the microstructural growth of 200 nm thick Au layers and, moreover, on their crystalline, electrical, and optical properties using a confocal sputtering arrangement. The confocal sputtering arrangement allows the production of highly homogeneous layer thicknesses that depend on pressure, power, and target-substrate distance. Layers deposited at low Ar pressure show extremely smooth and densely-packed films, as well as a preferred {111}-texture contrary to films deposited at higher Ar pressure. Furthermore, an increase in electrical resistivity combined with a decrease in grain size is observed for these layers. A subsequent annealing process up to a temperature of 600 °C reduces the resistivity, increases the grain size, improves the fraction of {111}-texture, and significantly changes the surface morphology for all initial states. Investigations at 4.2 K showed that the decrease in resistivity is caused by a structural change that takes the number of grain boundaries into consideration. The dielectric function investigated by ellipsometric measurements is dependent on the deposition process parameters, especially on Ar pressure. Surface plasmon resonance calculations based on the layers produced using the Otto configuration show the best performance using a specific setup for layers deposited at low Ar pressure.

Annealing treatment was applied to different mesoporous ZnO nanostructures prepared by wet chemical synthesis, i.e. nanoflowers (NFs), spherical aggregates (SPs), and nanorods (NRs). The sub-bandgap, defect properties as well as the trapping state characteristics after annealing were characterized spectroscopically, including ultrasensitive photothermal deflection spectroscopy (PDS), photoluminescence and photo-electrochemical methods. The comprehensive experimental analysis reveals that annealing alters both the bandgap and the sub-bandgap. The defect concentration and the density of surface traps in the ZnO nanostructures are suppressed upon annealing as deduced from photoluminescence and open-circuit voltage decay analysis. The photo-electrochemical investigations reveal that the surface traps dominate the near conduction band edge of ZnO and, hence, lead to high recombination rates when used in DSSCs. The density of bulk traps in ZnO SPs is higher than that in ZnO NFs and ZnO NRs and promote lower recombination loss between photoinjected electrons with the electrolyte-oxidized species on the surface. The highest power conversion efficiency of ZnO NFs-, ZnO SPs-, and ZnO NRs-based DSSC obtained in our system is 2.0, 4.5, and 1.8%, respectively.

Highlights The electrical transport of the metallized vein networks is mimicked from the material transport function of the leaf vein networks.The vein-like transparent conducting electrodes show ultralow sheet resistance 80%, and high current density transport capability > 6000 A cm−2.The metal consumption for the metallization of the leaf veins can be as low as 4 g m−2. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s40820-019-0359-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users., In this contribution, inspired by the excellent resource management and material transport function of leaf veins, the electrical transport function of metallized leaf veins is mimicked from the material transport function of the vein networks. By electroless copper plating on real leaf vein networks with copper thickness of only several hundred nanometre up to several micrometre, certain leaf veins can be converted to transparent conductive electrodes with an ultralow sheet resistance 100 times lower than that of state-of-the-art indium tin oxide thin films, combined with a broadband optical transmission of above 80% in the UV–VIS–IR range. Additionally, the resource efficiency of the vein-like electrode is characterized by the small amount of material needed to build up the networks and the low copper consumption during metallization. In particular, the high current density transport capability of the electrode of > 6000 A cm−2 was demonstrated. These superior properties of the vein-like structures inspire the design of high-performance transparent conductive electrodes without using critical materials and may significantly reduce the Ag consumption down to

Transparent conductive hybrid thin films based on silver nanowires (AgNW), zinc oxide (ZnO) and graphene were prepared using solution processing methods. For this study, the hexagonal (wurtzite) ZnO particles with a flower-like structure were synthesized by sol-gel reaction using zinc acetate dihydrate as a precursor at room temperature and pH value of 10. Ethanol dispersions of ZnO and commercial AgNW were deposited by spincoating method on glass substrates with fixed parameters to obtain AgNW-ZnO and ZnO-AgNW films, then their surfaces were covered with monolayer graphene flakes (MGFs) using a double self-assembly (DSA) process. The hybrid ZnO-AgNW-MGFs and AgNW-ZnO-MGFs films were characterized by XRD, SEM, UV?vis, four-point probe conductivity measurement, thermal (85 degrees C for 120 h) and long-term (ambient condition for 120 days) stability analyzes. The transmittances of AgNW-ZnO and ZnO-AgNW films were identical at 550 nm (80 %) and their sheet resistances (R-s) values were measured as 20.6 and 21.6 Omega/sq, respectively. After the MGFs deposition, the transmittances of hybrid films reduced to 72.5 and 76.8 %, while their R-s values decreased to 17.6 and 21.4 Omega/sq, respectively. Graphene flakes coating both enhanced the conductivity of hybrid films by improving the connection between silver nanowires and increased the thermal and long-term ambient stability of the films due to its barrier property against oxidation of silver nanowires. Turkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Arastirma Kurumu (TUBITAK)

Multi-metallic nanoparticles are useful for applications in biophotonics or catalysis. Metal compounds alter the properties of pure metallic nanoparticles and thus expand the particle performance compared to particles consisting of the pure phase of metals. We investigated the formation of bi-metallic Pd/Au nanoparticle systems fabricated by UV excimer laser exposure at 248 nm in the ns range and the structural, the morphological as well as the optical properties of these alloy nanoparticles. Laser parameters like energy and pulse number or the thickness proportions of the individual layers to the total layer thickness were varied. Due to the volume percentage of the metals, the total layer thickness and the used laser parameters, the particle size and size distribution could be tuned. The corresponding nanoparticle formation is able to influence the plasmon resonance in position and in shape. Based on x-ray diffraction measurements and energy dispersive x-ray analysis an alloy formation was observed. Using x-ray diffraction, the formation of additional reflexes of palladium-gold alloys between the reflexes of the pure metals could be detected. Furthermore, the position and intensity was adjustable by the percentage composition of metals. The energy dispersive x-ray analysis showed the spatial presence of both elements in each particle.

Different morphologies of TiO2 photoelectrodes for dye sensitized solar cells were obtained by using TiO2 gels dried in normal conditions (TiO2 amb) and in CO2 atmosphere at high pressure (TiO2 press). After a subsequent calcination, the powders were processed as pastes and drop-casted on conductive glass in order to prepare photoanodes for dye sensitized solar cells. N719 commercial dye was used as sensitizer in all the experiments. The structure and morphology of the processed TiO2 materials were investigated via X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and N2 adsorption/desorption measurements. The dye adsorption capacity of the photoanodes was tested using ultraviolet-visible absorption spectroscopy. The photovoltaic performances of the dye sensitized solar cells were investigated using current/voltage curves (I/V), open circuit photovoltage decay measurements and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The conversion efficiency (η) and short circuit density (Jsc) for TiO2 amb were 1.90 % and 5 mA/cm2 respectively, while the TiO2 press cell exhibited a 40 and 50 % increase in Jsc and η values respectively. This was correlated with increased dye loading capacities due to a broader distribution of pore size towards the mesopore region.

A series of thiocyanate-free bis(tridentate) ruthenium(II) complexes incorporating 1,2,3-triazole-derived NNN-, NCN-, and CNC-coordinating ligands has been employed for sensitizing ZnO photoanodes for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). Additionally, the first use of the TEMPO+ /TEMPO (2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-piperidine-1-oxyl) redox mediator as a surrogate for the I3 - /I- redox couple in ZnO nanostructured DSSCs is presented. Compared with I3 - /I- -based electrolytes, shorter charge lifetimes and diffusion lengths were determined for the TEMPO+ /TEMPO-based electrolyte. Nonetheless, similar power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) were achieved with both electrolytes for the RuNCN and RuCNC complexes, whereas higher PCEs are enabled by the iodine-free electrolyte in case of RuNNN. The combination of the molecular sensitizers and the TEMPO-based electrolyte exhibits relatively high external quantum efficiency (EQE) and promising PCEs, ranging from 4.48 to 1.47 %, which are-in part-comparable to that of ZnO-DSSCs with the benchmark N749 black dye. The TEMPO-based electrolyte also exhibits less absorption compared with its I3 - /I- counterpart, a favorable feature for enhancing the light harvesting ability of the photoanode. Furthermore, the results show the effect of the dye-sensitization procedure on the PCE values: The use of ethanol as the solvent compared with methanol increases the DSSC's efficiency, which is attributed to improved chemisorption of the sensitizer onto the ZnO surface.

AlN–SiC–Y3Al5O12 composite materials with a high absorption of microwave frequency (27–65 dB/cm) produced by pressureless sintering of mixtures consisting of AlN(2H), Y2O3, and SiC (6H) in 46, 4, 50 wt %, respectively, have been studied. The SiC components of the mixtures were used in sizes of 1, 5, and 50 μm. It has been shown that the resistivity of the developed materials depends essentially on the materials structures: sizes of SiC inclusions, distances between them, and state of the interfaces. It has been found that the increase of the SiC inclusions sizes in the material structure from 3 to 7 μm results in the decrease of the resistivity from 104 to 90 Ω·m, and at the decrease of the SiC inclusions sizes from 3 to 0.5 μm there forms a SiC uninterrupted skeleton, which also decreases the resistivity to 210 Ω·m. Thus, composite materials that contain 50 wt % SiC (inclusions sizes of 3 μm) are the most efficient in producing absorbers of microwave radiation. Interlayers of yttrium aluminum garnet, which are located at the SiC grains boundaries, prevent the forming of AlN(2H)–SiC(6H) solid solutions and thus, make it possible to keep high dielectric characteristics of a composite material based on aluminum nitride and afford a high absorption of a microwave radiation.

An improved Langmuir–Blodgett self-assembly process combined with Ag-assisted wet chemical etching for the preparation of ordered silicon nanowire arrays is presented in this paper. The new process is independent of the surface conditions (hydrophilic or hydrophobic) of the substrate, allowing for depositing a monolayer of closely packed polystyrene nanospheres onto any flat surface. A full control of the morphology of the silicon nanowire is achieved. Furthermore, it is observed that the formation of porous-Si at the tips of the nanowires is closely related to the release of Ag nanoparticles from the Ag mask during the etching, which subsequently redeposit on the surface initially free of Ag, and these Ag nanoparticles catalyze the etching of the tips and lead to the porous-Si formation. This finding will help to improve the resulting nano- and microstructures to get them free of pores, and renders it a promising technology for low-cost high throughput fabrication of specific optical devices, photonic crystals, sensors, MEMS, and NEMS by substituting the costly BOSCH process. It is shown that ordered nanowire arrays free of porous structures can be produced if all sources of Ag nanoparticles are excluded, and structures with aspect ratio more than 100 can be produced.

For Raman spectroscopic analyses of the cells and other biological samples, the choice of the right substrate material is very important to avoid loss of information in characteristic spectral features because of competing background signals. In the current study, Raman spectroscopy is used to characterize several potential Raman substrates. Raman vibrational bands of the substrate material are discussed. The surface topography is analyzed by atomic force microscopy, and the root mean square surface roughness values are reported. Biocompatibility of the substrates is tested with Hep G2 cells evaluating cellular morphology as well as live/dead staining. Calcium fluoride, silicon, fused silica, borofloat glass, and silicon nitride membranes support cell growth and adherence. Silicon, borofloat glass, and fused silica give rise to Raman signals in the region of interest. Calcium fluoride substrate (UV grade) is suitable for Raman spectroscopic investigation of living cells. Nickel foil is suitable substrate for Raman spectroscopic investigation but cellular adherence and viability depend on the quality of the foil. Silicon nitride membranes coated with nickel chrome is a suitable Raman substrate in closed microfluidic systems. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

We have developed an efficient, low temperature, synthetic route for ZnO nanoflowers (NFs) as photoanode material. This alternative route yields small flowerlike nanostructures, built from densely self-assembled tip-ended rod structures. The obtained ZnO NFs possess a large bandgap of 3.27 - 3.39 eV, enabling the generation of an average open current voltage of 0.56 V. Additionally, they show a high internal light harvesting of 14.6•10-7A-mol-1. The growth mechanism and self-assembly of ZnO NFs were studied in detail by joint spectroscopic-TEM investigations. It is shown that the ZnO crystallite size increases with increasing annealing temperatures and that the stress and the improved crystallinity are induced by annealing and reduce the lattice strain and the dislocation density. The bandgaps of ZnO are affected by the lattice strain revealing an optimal region of lattice strain to gain high bandgap energies. The properties of the synthesized ZnO NFs are compared with other morphologies, i.e. ZnO spherical aggregates (SPs) and ZnO nanorods (NRs), and are tested as electrode materials in dye-sensitized solar cells.

This work investigates the influence of different process parameters on the evolution of complex 3D silica/silver structures using metastable atomic layer deposition (MS-ALD). MS-ALD is a recently developed method for the fabrication of 3D structures based on self-assembly side reactions accompanying the cyclic formation and decomposition of metastable Ag oxide in which silver (Ag) nanoparticles serve as templates. In this work, planar Ag films are used as templates instead of Ag nanoparticles, with the influence of diverse process parameters being analyzed in detail. We found that the initial thickness of the Ag film has a significant effect on the resulting structures, leading to a variety of different structures from small pillar-like structures to complex nanowire architectures. We also found that – the MS-ALD process being characterized by a substrate-enhanced growth behavior where the growth per cycle gradually decreases with a growing number of cycles –, even at the very high number of 900 cycles, we still work in the transient regime. Nevertheless, MS-ALD might be promising deposition technique for energy harvesting or catalytic applications due to the possibility to achieve high surface-to-volume ratios and of using large scale-depositable planar silver films.

Several series of preform and fiber samples of Yb2O3-Al2O3-SiO2 glass with finely-graded composition steps were prepared by MCVD and solution doping under well-defined conditions using both oxidizing and reducing atmospheres during preform collapse. Their optical properties, including absorption and emission behavior in the NIR/VIS/UV region, have been characterized and correlated with the detailed glass composition. The results present an overview of the property spectrum, which should contribute to the further development of laser fibers and the discussion and control of disturbing effects such as photodarkening.

The laser parameters, energy density and number of pulses, influence the UV laser-induced formation of gold nanoparticles on glass substrates. But also the deposition rate and the thickness of the gold layers used are important criteria for nanoparticle production. This is due to the fact that the resulting microstructures and the optical properties of the gold layers change by variation of sputtering power and deposition time based on different growth conditions of the films. The laser power of the KrF excimer laser used was varied from 50 to 500 mJ/cm2, the pulse number from 1 to 10 pulses and the film thickness from 20 nm to 60 nm as well. Low deposition rates produce layers with higher transparency for the same film thickness. The significant [111] texture of the films with grain sizes from 11 nm to 25 nm in dependent on the deposition rate, evaluated by x-ray diffraction and electron backscatter diffraction, changes after laser exposure. Particle size distributions were evaluated by scanning electron microscopy. Uni- or bi-modal distributions were observed dependent on deposition rate and laser parameters. The position and the width of nanoparticle plasmon resonances vary accordingly.

We report on the fabrication of spherical Au spheres by pulsed laser treatment using a KrF excimer laser (248 nm, 25 ns) under ambient conditions as a fast and high throughput fabrication technique. The presented experiments were realized using initial Au layers of 100 nm thickness deposited on optically transparent and low cost Borofloat glass or single-crystalline SrTiO3 substrates, respectively. High (111)-orientation and smoothness (RMS ≈ 1 nm) are the properties of the deposited Au layers before laser treatment. After laser treatment, spheres with size distribution ranging from hundreds of nanometers up to several micrometers were produced. Single-particle scattering spectra with distinct plasmonic resonance peaks are presented to reveal the critical role of optimal irradiation parameters in the process of laser induced particle self-assembly. The variation of irradiation parameters like fluence and number of laser pulses influences the melting, dewetting and solidification process of the Au layers and thus the formation of extremely well shaped spherical particles. The gold layers on Borofloat glass and SrTiO3 are found to show a slightly different behavior under laser treatment. We also discuss the effect of substrates.

The optical response of realistic 3D plasmonic substrates composed of randomly shaped particles of different size and interparticle distance distributions in addition to nanometer scale surface roughness is intrinsically challenging to simulate due to computational limitations. Here, we present a Finite Element Method (FEM)-based methodology that bridges in-depth theoretical investigations and experimental optical response of plasmonic substrates composed of such silver nanoparticles. Parametrized scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) active substrate and tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (TERS) probes are used to simulate the far-and near-field optical response. Far-field calculations are consistent with experimental dark field spectra and charge distribution images reveal for the first time in arbitrary structures the contributions of interparticle hybridized modes such as sub-radiant and super-radiant modes that also locally organize as basic units for Fano resonances. Near-field simulations expose the spatial position-dependent impact of hybridization on field enhancement. Simulations of representative sections of TERS tips are shown to exhibit the same unexpected coupling modes. Near-field simulations suggest that these modes can contribute up to 50% of the amplitude of the plasmon resonance at the tip apex but, interestingly, have a small effect on its frequency in the visible range. The band position is shown to be extremely sensitive to particle nanoscale roughness, highlighting the necessity to preserve detailed information at both the largest and the smallest scales. To the best of our knowledge, no currently available method enables reaching such a detailed description of large scale realistic 3D plasmonic systems.

In this paper we will discuss the influence of atmosphere pressure microwave plasma on the background loss and the radial distribution of several dopants in specialty, especially rare-earth (RE) doped, preforms and fibers for high power application. In conclusion we were able to demonstrate a significant improvement in the homogeneity of the distribution of the codopants within the silica matrix. Furthermore, we used the plasma process for the functionalization of pure and doped particles as basic raw material in the powder-based reactive powder sintering of silica (REPUSIL) process. In further experiments we will use plasma technology for the all-in-one doping of both active and passive dopants for a brightness adjustment of the refractive index of specialty fibers.

Tailoring the physicochemical properties of the metallic multijunction nanolayers is a prerequisite for the development of microelectronics. From this perspective, a desired lower reflectance of infrared radiation was achieved by an electrochemical deposition of porous platinum in nonaqueous media on silver mirror supported nickel-chrome and nickel-titanium metallic films with incremental decreasing thicknesses from 80-10 nm. The electro-assembled architectures were examined by means of scanning electron microscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and it was observed that the layer and sublayer thicknesses and resistivities have a substantial effect upon the porous platinum morphology and its optical properties. It is here reported that the augmentation of the metallic layer electrical conductivity determines the electroformation of more compact platinum nanolayers. Moreover, the platinum black coating of metallic nanolayers causes a considerable decrease of the reflectance in the region from 1000-8000 cm-1.

The viscous behavior of fluorine-doped synthetic silica is studied using collapsing experiments with different fluorine-doped tubes on a modified chemical vapor deposition (MCVD) lathe. The principles, techniques, and evaluations of this method are the same as the ones demonstrated previously in detail with pure and doped silica. The present investigations provide information about the influence of fluorine doping up to a concentration of about 10 mol% F (3.4 wt% F) in a temperature range between 1600��C and 2000��C. Fluorine doping leads to a systematic decrease in the viscosity, combined with a decrease of the activation energy of the viscous flow and a certain increase of the pre-exponential factor. In summary, this demonstrates the weakening influence of fluorine on the glass network, similar to the incorporation of hydroxyl or chlorine.

A sensing structure based on a cleaved silica microsphere is proposed for temperature sensing. The microsphere was cleaved using focused ion beam milling. The asymmetry in the structure introduced by the cut generates not only new cavities but also random interferometric reflections inside the microsphere. These two spectral components can be separated using low-pass and high-pass filters, respectively. The sensor response to temperature can be extracted from the cavities’ component using a correlation method. The device achieved a temperature sensitivity of −10.8 ± 0.2 pm/°C between 30 °C and 80 °C. The same effect is impossible to be obtained in a normal uncleaved microsphere. The random interferometric component did not provide any information on temperature using the same analysis. However, when changing the temperature, a new and completely distinct reflection spectrum with no apparent correlation with others at different temperatures was achieved.

usc The small dimensions of optical fiber sensors are of particular interest to biological applications, given the ability to penetrate relatively inaccessible regions. However, conventional optical fibers are larger than biological material such as cells, and thus there is a need to further miniaturize fiber sensors. Here we present the fabrication of ultra-small Fabry-Perot cavities written into optical micro-fibers using focused ion beam milling. We have fabricated cavities as small as 2.8 μm and demonstrated their use for sensing of both bulk refractive index and thin-layer coatings. In order to achieve sensitive measurements we interrogate at visible wavelengths with a broadband detection system, thereby reducing the free spectral range of the interferometer relative to the measurement bandwidth, increasing the number of interference fringes, and allowing for the implementation of the Fourier shift method. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

The high pressure (50 MPa - 2 GPa) – high temperature synthesized MgB2 bulk materials are characterized by nearly theoretical density (1-2% porosity), 80-98% connectivity, extremely high critical current densities (e.g. at 20 K, in 0–1 T jc=1.3–1.0 MA·cm-2 (with 10% SiC) and jc= 0.92 – 0.73 MA·cm-2 (without doping)), large irreversibility fields (Birr(18.4 K) =15 T and Birr (0 K) = 32.5 T) and high upper critical fields (Bc2 (22 K) =15 T and Bc2(0 K) ~ 42.1 T). The transformation of grain boundary pinning to point pinning in MgB2-based materials with increasing manufacturing temperature (from 800 to 1050 oC) under pressures from 0.1 to 2 GPa correlates well with an increase in critical current density in low external magnetic fields caused by the redistribution of boron and the oxygen impurities in the material structure. As the manufacturing temperature increases, the discontinuous oxygen enriched layers transform into distinct Mg-B-O inclusions and the size and amount of inclusions of higher magnesium borides MgBX (X>4) are reduced. The effect of oxygen and boron redistribution can be enhanced by Ti or SiC additions.

We propose and experimentally demonstrate a monolithic nanowire-enhanced fiber-based nanoprobe for the broadband delivery of light (550-730 nm) to a deep subwavelength scale using short-range surface plasmons. The geometry is formed by a step index fiber with an integrated gold nanowire in its core and a protruding gold nanotip with sub-10 nm apex radius. We present a novel coupling scheme to excite short-range surface plasmons, whereby the radially polarized hybrid mode propagating inside the nanowire section excites the plasmonic mode close to the fiber endface, which is in turn superfocused down to nanoscale dimensions at the tip apex. We show that in this all-integrated fiber-plasmonic coupling scheme the wire length can be orders of magnitude longer than the attenuation length of short-range plasmon polaritons, yielding a broadband plasmon excitation and reducing demands in fabrication. We observe that the scattered light in the far-field from the nanotip is axially polarized and preferentially excited by a radially polarized input, unambiguously revealing that it originates from a short-range plasmon propagating on the nanotip, in agreement with simulations. This novel excitation scheme will have important applications in near-field microscopy and nanophotonics and potentially offers significantly improved resolution compared to current delivery near-field probes.

Recent experiments have evidenced sub-nanometer resolution in plasmonic-enhanced probe spectroscopy. Such a high resolution cannot be simply explained using the commonly considered radii of metallic nanoparticles on plasmonic probes. In this contribution the effects of defects as small as a single atom found on spherical plasmonic particles acting as probing tips are investigated in connection with the spatial resolution provided. The presence of abundant edge and corner sites with atomic scale dimensions in crystalline metallic nanoparticles is evident from transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images. Electrodynamic calculations based on the Finite Element Method (FEM) are implemented to reveal the impact of the presence of such atomic features in probing tips on the lateral spatial resolution and field localization. Our analysis is developed for three different configurations, and under resonant and non-resonant illumination conditions, respectively. Based on this analysis, the limits of field enhancement, lateral resolution and field confinement in plasmon-enhanced spectroscopy and microscopy are inferred, reaching values below 1 nanometer for reasonable atomic sizes., We gratefully acknowledge financial support from the Thuringian State Government within its ProExcellence initiative (APC2020). S. T. would like to thank Tomas Neuman for helpful discussions and COST (COST-STSM-MP1302-21198) for financial support. J. A. acknowledges the hospitality of the Abbe Center in Jena, and financial support of project FIS2013-41184-P of the Spanish MINECO, and project IT756-13 of the Department of Education and Culture of the Government of the Basque Country.

Magnetoconductivity of ten ZnO, Zn 1 − x Co x O, and Zn 1 − x Mn x O thin films with nominal concentrations of 2.0 at.% and 0.1 at.% of Co 2 + and Mn 2 + ions, respectively, has been analyzed in the temperature range from 5 K to 200 K in in-plane and out-of-plane magnetic fields up to 6 T. The formation of a highly conducting surface layer can be controlled during thin film deposition, leading to a large variation of the sheet resistance, namely, from 2 × 10 3 Ω / ◻ to 1 × 10 5 Ω / ◻ at room temperature. Depending on the thickness of the highly conducting surface layer, a single two-dimensional (2D), a single three-dimensional (3D), or a two-dimensional and three-dimensional (2D + 3D) parallel conducting model was chosen to analyze the measured magnetoconductivity of the magnetic ZnO thin films with different electron spins ( S = 5 / 2 for Zn 1 − x Mn x O and S = 3 / 2 for Zn 1 − x Co x O) and with different Lande g -factors (isotropic for 3D Zn 1 − x Mn x O and 2D Zn 1 − x Co x O and anisotropic for 2D Zn 1 − x Mn x O and 3D Zn 1 − x Co x O).Magnetoconductivity of ten ZnO, Zn 1 − x Co x O, and Zn 1 − x Mn x O thin films with nominal concentrations of 2.0 at.% and 0.1 at.% of Co 2 + and Mn 2 + ions, respectively, has been analyzed in the temperature range from 5 K to 200 K in in-plane and out-of-plane magnetic fields up to 6 T. The formation of a highly conducting surface layer can be controlled during thin film deposition, leading to a large variation of the sheet resistance, namely, from 2 × 10 3 Ω / ◻ to 1 × 10 5 Ω / ◻ at room temperature. Depending on the thickness of the highly conducting surface layer, a single two-dimensional (2D), a single three-dimensional (3D), or a two-dimensional and three-dimensional (2D + 3D) parallel conducting model was chosen to analyze the measured magnetoconductivity of the magnetic ZnO thin films with different electron spins ( S = 5 / 2 for Zn 1 − x Mn x O and S = 3 / 2 for Zn 1 − x Co x O) and with different Lande g -factors (isotropic for...

Silicon nanowire (SiNW) based solar cells are a promising candidate for third generation solar cells with high efficiency, which will further reduce the cost of the PV modules, making it competitive with conventional energy sources. In this paper the wet chemical etching process for generating silicon nanowires is investigated on different low-cost substrate materials. These nanowires are useful for a radial pn-junction solar cell with core–shell configuration, which allows for using absorber materials with low-carrier lifetime. In this work, wet chemical nanowire etching is applied to edge-defined film-fed growth (EFG) mc-Si wafers, mc-Si wafers made from metallurgical grade Si, multicrystalline (mc-Si) thin films deposited on glass, and thin crystallized films deposited on mc-Si wafers produced from metallurgical grade Si. A proof of concept for using low-cost materials in PV is demonstrated for SiNWs prepared on mc-Si wafer produced from highly doped MG-Si.

We are reporting on SiO2-Al2O3-La2O3 glasses—with and without Yb2O3—suitable for nonlinear and fiber laser applications. We will also be presenting successful supercontinuum generation and fiber laser operation around 1060 nm in step-index fibers. We optimized the glass compositions in terms of thermal and optical requirements for both a high La2O3 and Yb2O3 concentration and good compatibility with a silica cladding. We also produced bulk samples, unstructured fibers, and structured fibers with a SiO2-Al2O3-La2O3 core and silica cladding for this purpose.

Refereed/Peer-reviewed Optical fibers are promising tools for performing biological and biomedical sensing due to their small cross section and potential for multiplexing. In particular, fabricating ultra-small sensing devices is of increasing interest for measuring biological material such as cells. A promising direction is the use of interferometric techniques combined with optical fiber post-processing. In this work we present recent progress in the development of Fabry-Perot micro-cavities written into optical fiber tapers using focused ion beam (FIB) milling. We first demonstrate that FIB milled optical fiber microcavities are sensitive enough to measure polyelectrolyte layer deposition. We then present new results on the fabrication and optical characterization of serially-multiplexed dual cavity micro-sensors. Two cavities were written serially along the fiber with two different cavity lengths, producing a total of four reflecting surfaces and thus six possible interferometric pairs/cavities. By using fast Fourier transform it is possible to obtain de-multiplexed measurements for each cavity. This will be particularly important for bioassays where positive and negative controls are required to be measured within close spatial proximity.

Using liquid phase epitaxy (LPE) technique (111) yttrium iron garnet (YIG) films with thicknesses of ~100 nm and surface roughnesses as low as 0.3 nm have been grown as a basic material for spin-wave propagation experiments in microstructured waveguides. The continuously strained films exhibit nearly perfect crystallinity without significant mosaicity and with effective lattice misfits of delta a(perpendicular)/a(substrate) ~10-4 and below. The film/substrate interface is extremely sharp without broad interdiffusion layer formation. All LPE films exhibit a nearly bulk-like saturation magnetization of (1800+-20) Gs and an `easy cone' anisotropy type with extremely small in-plane coercive fields, 8 pages, 10 figures

usc Refereed/Peer-reviewed Optical fiber micro-tips are promising devices for sensing applications in small volume and difficult to access locations, such as biological and biomedical settings. The tapered fiber tips are prepared by dynamic chemical etching, reducing the size from 125 μm to just a few μm. Focused ion beam milling is then used to create cavity structures on the tapered fiber tips. Two different Fabry-Perot micro-cavities have been prepared and characterized: a solid silica cavity created by milling two thin slots and a gap cavity. A third multi-cavity structure is fabricated by combining the concepts of solid silica cavity and gap cavity. This micro-tip structure is analyzed using a fast Fourier transform method to demultiplex the signals of each cavity. Simultaneous measurement of temperature and external refractive index is then demonstrated, presenting sensitivities of-15.8 pm/K and-1316 nm/RIU, respectively.

usc Refereed/Peer-reviewed We demonstrate the use of focused ion beam milling to machine optical structures directly into the core of microstructured optical fibers. The particular fiber used was exposed-core microstructured optical fiber, which allowed direct access to the optically guiding core. Two different designs of Fabry-Perot cavity were fabricated and optically characterized. The first cavity was formed by completely removing a section of the fiber core, while the second cavity consisted of a shallow slot milled into the core, leaving the majority of the core intact. This work highlights the possibility of machining complex optical devices directly onto the core of microstructured optical fibers using focused ion beam milling for applications including environmental, chemical, and biological sensing.

International audience; Increasing the pressure during manufacturing MgB2 enhances the volume pinning force and moves the position of the maximum to higher magnetic fields. A similar shift was observed when Ti or SiC was added and the maximum of the volume pinning force was found at higher fields in in situ synthesized materials than in ex situ sintered samples. We attribute the observed changes to Mg–B–O oxygen-enriched regions and grains of higher magnesium borides in the MgB2 matrix. High-temperature processed materials demonstrated mainly point or mixed pinning while grain boundary pinning dominated after low-temperature synthesis.

Superconducting (SC) and mechanical properties of spark plasma (or SPS) produced MgB2 –based materials allow their efficient applications in fault current limiters, superconducting electromotors, pumps, generators, magnetic bearings, etc. The synthesized from Mg and B at 50 MPa, 1050 °C for 30 min material has a density of 2.52 g/cm3, critical current density, jc = 7.1•105 A/cm2 at 10 K , 5.4 •105 A/cm2 at 20 K, and 9•104 A/cm2 at 35 K in zero magnetic field; at 20 K its field of irreversibility Birr(20)=7 T and upper critical field Bc2(20)=11 T; microhardness HV=10.5 GPa and fracture toughness K1C =1.7 MPa•m1/2 at 4.9 N-load. SPS-manufactured in- situ MgB2-based materials usually have somewhat higher jc than sintered ex-situ. The pressure variations from 16 to 96 MPa during the SPS-process did not affect material SC characteristics significantly; the jc at 10-20 K was slightly higher and the material density was higher by 11%, when pressures of 50-96 MPa were used. The structure of SPS-produced MgB2 material contains Mg-B-O inclusions and inclusions of higher borides (of compositions near MgB4, MgB7, MgB12, MgB17, MgB20), which can be pinning centers. The presence of higher borides in the MgB2 structure can be revealed by the SEM and Raman spectroscopy.

Structures of MgB2-based materials manufactured under pressure (up to 2 GPa) by different methods having high superconducting performance and connectivity are multiphase and contain different Mg-B-O compounds. Some oxygen can be incorporated into MgB2 and boron into MgO structures, MgBx (X=4-20) inclusions contain practically no oxygen. Regulating manufacturing temperature, pressure, introducing additions one can influence oxygen and boron distribution in the materials and thus, affect the formation, amount and sizes of Mg-B-O and MgBx inclusions and changing type of pinning, pinning force and so affect critical current density j c. The boron concentration increase in initial Mg and B mixture allows obtaining sample containing 88.5 wt% of MgB12 with TC of 37.4 K (estimated magnetically).

The critical current density, jc, of high-pressure synthesized MgB2-based balk materials correlates with the amount and distribution of higher borides (MgB12) and Mg-B-O inclusions, which in tern correlates with the synthesis temperature and presence of additions (Ti, Ta, SiC). High-pressure-synthesized materials with near MgB12 composition of matrix exhibited superconducting transition temperature, Tc, of about 37 K, rather high jc (5∙105 and 103 A/cm2 in 0 T and 3.5 T, respectively, at 20 K) and doubled matrix microhardness: 25±1.1 GPa at 4.9 N –load as compared to materials with MgB2).

This paper reports on a method for hermetic sensor housing including lateral feedthroughs and room-temperature anodic bonding. The planarisation of the lateral feedthroughs, essential for the purpose of hermetic sealing, is realised by means of an etch-back process of (PE)CVD silicon dioxide combined with an additional spin-on glass (SOG) layer. The quality of the planarisation technique with regard to the main process variables is evaluated by FIB and tactile measurements. It is proven that 3D surfaces, represented here by the wiring and feedthrough layer, can be planarised almost completely. The applied bonding process features thin-films of a highly ionic conductive glass, enabling anodic bonding at unique conditions (room temperature and low applied voltages in order of 100 V). The general applicability of the packaging method is demonstrated with a setup of encapsulated, commercially available thermoelectric radiation sensors, which are used for the verification of the hermeticity of the setup as well.

The volume pinning force, F p(max), increases with increasing synthesis or sintering pressure (0.1 MPa–2 GPa) in materials prepared at high temperature (1050 °C) while it stays practically unchanged in those prepared at low temperature (800 °C). The position of F p(max) can be shifted to higher magnetic fields by: (1) increasing the manufacturing pressure or decreasing the temperature (2) additions (Ti, SiC, or C, for example), and (3) in-situ preparation. Grain boundary pinning (GBP) dominates in materials prepared at low temperatures (600–800 °C), while high-temperature preparation induces strong point pinning (PP) or mixed pinning (MP) leading to outstanding properties. In materials produced by spark plasma sintering (SPS), the position of F p(max) is higher than expected for both grain boundary and point pinning. The distribution of boron and oxygen in MgB2 based material, which can changed by additions or the preparation conditions, significantly affects the type and strength of pining. Materials prepared under a pressure of 2 GPa with a nominal composition of Mg:7B or Mg:12B consist of 88.5 wt % MgB12, 2.5 wt % MgB2, 9 wt % MgO or 53 wt % MgB12, 31 wt % MgB20 16 wt % MgO, respectively. Their magnetic shielding fractions at low temperatures are 10 % and 1.5 %, with a transition temperature, T c of 37.4–37.6 K. Although their magnetic critical current density at zero field and 20 K was 2–5×102 A/cm2, they were found to be insulating on the macroscopic level.

We report on SiO 2 -Al 2 O 3 -La 2 O 3 glasses – with and without Yb 2 O 3 – suitable for nonlinear and fiber laser applications. We also present successful supercontinuum generation and fiber laser operation around 1060 nm in step-index fibers. We have optimized the glass compositions in terms of thermal and optical requirements for both a high La 2 O 3 (24 mol%) and Yb 2 O 3 (6 mol%) concentration. The aluminum concentration was adjusted to about 21 mol% Al 2 O 3 to increase the solubility of lanthanum and ytterbium in the glass beyond possible MCVD based techniques. The glasses have been characterized by dilatometrical methods to find transition temperatures from 860 to 880°C and thermal expansion coefficients between 4.1 and 7.0 × 10 -6 K -1 . Structured step index fibers with a SiO 2 -Al 2 O 3 -La 2 O 3 core and silica cladding have been realized showing a fiber loss minimum of about 500 dB/km at 1200 nm wavelength. The chromatic dispersion could be adjusted to shift the zero dispersion wavelength (ZDW) close to the pump wavelength of 1550 nm in a supercontinuum generation setup. First fiber laser experiments show an efficiency of about 41 % with a remarkably reduced photodarkening compared to MCVD based fibers.

Silicon nanowire-based solar cells received increasing attention due to their enhanced light harvesting properties and the potential to use low-cost materials to produce solar cells comparable with those on costly monocrystalline counterparts. It is essential to improve the performance of nanowire solar cells by suppressing surface recombination. A multiple core (crystalline silicon nanowires)–shell silicon nanowire-based heterojunction solar cell has been fabricated to deal with this problem. To this end, an ultrathin passivating Al2O3 tunnel layer was deposited on the highly doped p-type a-Si:H emitter prior to a transparent conducting oxide by atomic layer deposition (ALD). Both open circuit voltage and current density increase significantly due to the insertion of the ultrathin Al2O3 layer. An efficiency of 10.0% has been reached by using this multiple core–shell structure.

Josephson junctions generate, when subjected to microwave irradiation, voltages with a very high precision and are used in metrology applications. So-called PJVS (programmable Josephson voltage-standards) are capable of generating both AC and DC voltages of up to 10 V. Our work addresses a full fabrication scenario for 10 V PJVS arrays driven at 70 GHz to be used in low microwave-power conditions as in, but not limited to GUNN diodes or cryocooler applications. Nb x Si1−x in its function as a barrier material was characterised with AFM, RBS and reflectometry in order to establish a reliable technological foundation. A 10 V PJVS array driven with microwave power below 50 mW is further presented, which was achieved by optimising the fabrication technology regarding the degree of homogeneity of the Josephson junctions composition and thickness. Control over these parameters is crucial in choosing a stable and well-suited characteristic voltage (I c R n product) and critical current density j c. With this, a low-power operation of a PJVS array is possible without the need for liquid helium cooling, which is currently limiting the availability of PJVS based metrology.

High performance particle detectors are needed for fundamental research in high energy physics in the exploration of the Higgs boson, dark matter, anti-matter, gravitational waves and proof of the standard model, which will extend the understanding of our Universe. Future particle detectors should have ultrahigh radiation hardness, low power consumption, high spatial resolution and fast signal response. Unfortunately, some of these properties are counter-influencing for the conventional silicon drift detectors (SDDs), so that they cannot be optimized simultaneously. In this paper, the main issues of conventional SDDs have been analyzed, and a novel core–shell detector design based on micro- and nano-structures etched into Si-wafers is proposed. It is expected to simultaneously reach ultrahigh radiation hardness, low power consumption, fast signal response and high spatial resolution down to the sub-micrometer range, which will probably meet the requirements for the most powerful particle accelerators in the near future. A prototype core–shell detector was fabricated using modern silicon nanotechnology and the functionality was tested using electron-beam-induced current measurements. Such a high performance detector will open many new applications in extreme radiation environments such as high energy physics, astrophysics, high resolution (bio-) imaging and crystallography, which will push these fields beyond their current boundaries.