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International audience; Ants are a major ecological group in tropical rainforests. Few studies in the Neotropics have documented the distribution of ants from the ground to the canopy, and none have included the understorey. A previous analysis of an intensive arthropod study in Panama, involving 11 sampling methods, showed that the factors influencing ant β diversity (i.e., changes in assemblage composition) were, in decreasing order of importance, the vertical (height), temporal (season), and horizontal (geographic distance) dimensions. In the present study, we went one step further and aimed (1) to identify the best sampling methods to study the entire ant assemblage across the three strata, (2) to test if all strata show a similar horizontal β diversity and (3) to analyze the functional structure of the entire ant assemblage. We identified 405 ant species from 11 subfamilies and 68 genera. Slightly more species were sampled in the canopy than on the ground; they belonged to distinct sub-assemblages. The understorey fauna was mainly a mixture of species found in the other two strata. The horizontal β diversity between sites was similar for the three strata. About half of the ant species foraged in two (29%) or three (25%) strata. A single method, aerial flight interception traps placed alongside tree trunks, acting as arboreal pitfall traps, collected half of the species and reflected the vertical stratification. Using the functional traits approach, we observed that generalist species with mid-sized colonies were by far the most numerous (31%), followed by ground- or litter-dwelling species, either specialists (20%), or generalists (16%), and arboreal species, either generalists (19%) or territorially dominant (8%), and finally army ants (5%). Our results reinforce the idea that a proper understanding of the functioning of ant assemblages requires the inclusion of arboreal ants in survey programs.

In the tropics, antagonistic seed predation networks may have different properties than mutualistic pollination and seed dispersal networks, but the former have been considerably less studied. We tested whether the structure of antagonistic tripartite networks composed of host plants, insects developing within seeds and fruits, and their insect parasitoids could be predicted from plant phylogenetic distance and plant traits. We considered subsets of the networks (“subnetworks”) at three rainforest locations (Panama, Thailand, Papua New Guinea), based on insect families, plant families or plant functional groups. We recorded 3,197 interactions and observed a low percentage of realized interactions, especially in Panama, where insect host specificity was higher than in Thailand or New Guinea. Several factors may explain this, including insect faunal composition, incidence of dry fruits, high fruit production and high occurrence of Fabaceae at the Panamanian site. Host specificity was greater among seed-eaters than pulp-eaters and for insects feeding on dry fruits as opposed to insects feeding on fleshy fruits. Plant species richness within plant families did not influence insect host specificity, but site characteristics may be important in this regard. Most subnetworks were extremely specialized, such as those including Tortricidae and Bruchinae in Panama. Plant phylogenetic distance, plant basal area and plant traits (fruit length, number of seeds per fruit) had important effects on several network statistics in regressions weighted by sampling effort. A path analysis revealed a weak direct influence of plant phylogenetic distance on parasitoid richness, indicating limited support for the “nasty host hypothesis”. Our study emphasizes the duality between seed dispersal and seed predation networks in the tropics, as key plant species differ and host specificity tends to be low in the former and higher in the latter. This underlines the need to study both types of networks for sound practices of forest regeneration and conservation.

Conflicts among and between local, national, regional and international stakeholders involved in marine turtle conservation are increasing. Often, they arise because of different socio-economic backgrounds of the people or groups involved. Here, we identified and assessed the conservation-based conflicts occurring in 24 of the 39 Caribbean countries, including their frequency, level of severity, number of stakeholders' groups involved, the degree to which they hinder conservation goals, and potential solutions. Using a cross-sectional social survey, we evaluated the presence and details of conservation conflicts provided by 72 respondents. The respondents included conservation-based project leaders, researchers, people involved in policy-based decision-making, conservation volunteers (community-based conservation groups), and species experts with experience working on marine turtle conservation programs in the Caribbean. The respondents identified 136 conflicts, and we grouped them into 16 different categories. The most commonly mentioned causes of conflicts were: 1) the ‘lack of enforcement by local authorities to support conservation-based legislation or programs’ (18%); 2) ‘legal consumption of turtles by one sector of community clashing the conservation aspirations of other sectors of community (14%); and 3) ’variable enforcement of legislation to limit/prohibit use across range states of the species (10%). From our data it is also apparent that illicit activities in the region are also likely to impact the future success of conservation or monitoring based projects and programs. Overall, an exhaustive review was carried out, and the potential solutions were gathered. Due to the level of severity (physical violence) that some conflicts have reached, achieving solutions will be challenging without mediation, mutual cooperation around shared values, and adaptive management arrangements. Achieving this will require combinations of bottom up and top down collaborative governance approaches.

Robust data to refute or support claims of global insect decline are currently lacking, particularly for the soil fauna in the tropics. DNA metabarcoding represents a powerful approach for rigorous spatial and temporal monitoring of the taxonomically challenging soil fauna. Here, we provide a detailed field protocol, which was successfully applied in Barro Colorado Island (BCI) in Panama, to collect soil samples and arthropods in a tropical rainforest, to be later processed with metabarcoding. We also estimate the proportion of soil/litter ant, springtail and termite species from the local fauna that can be detected by metabarcoding samples obtained either from Berlese-Tullgren (soil samples), Malaise or light traps. Each collecting method detected a rather distinct fauna. Soil and Malaise trap samples detected 213 species (73%) of all target species. Malaise trap samples detected many ant species, whereas soil samples were more efficient at detecting springtail and termite species. With respect to long-term monitoring of soil-dwelling and common species (more amenable to statistical trends), the best combination of two methods were soil and light trap samples, detecting 94% of the total of common species. A protocol including 100 soil, 40 Malaise and 80 light trap samples annually processed by metabarcoding would allow the long-term monitoring of at least 11%, 18% and 16% of species of soil/litter ants, springtails and termites, respectively, present on BCI, and a high proportion of the total abundance (up to 80% of all individuals) represented by these taxa.

Although sea turtles have received substantial focus worldwide, research on the immature life stages is still relatively limited. The latter is of particular importance, given that a large proportion of sea turtle populations comprises immature individuals. We set out to identify knowledge gaps and identify the main barriers hindering research in this field. We analyzed the perceptions of sea turtle experts through an online survey which gathered their opinions on the current state of affairs on immature sea turtle research, including species and regions in need of further study, priority research questions, and barriers that have interfered with the advancement of research. Our gap analysis indicates that studies on immature leatherback Dermochelys coriacea and hawksbill Eretmochelys imbricata turtles are lacking, as are studies on all species based in the Indian, South Pacific, and South Atlantic Oceans. Experts also perceived that studies in population ecology, namely on survivorship and demography, and habitat use/behavior, are needed to advance the state of knowledge on immature sea turtles. Our survey findings indicate the need for more interdisciplinary research, collaborative efforts (e.g. data-sharing, joint field activities), and improved communication among researchers, funding bodies, stakeholders, and decision-makers. Fil: Wildermann, Natalie E.. Florida State University; Estados Unidos Fil: Gredzens, Christian. Florida State University; Estados Unidos Fil: Avens, Larisa. National Ocean And Atmospheric Administration; Estados Unidos Fil: Barrios Garrido, Héctor A.. Universidad del Zulia; Venezuela. Florida State University; Estados Unidos Fil: Bell, Ian. Aquatic Species Program. Conservation And Biodiversity Operations Branch; Australia Fil: Blumenthal, Janice. Cayman Islands Department Of Environment; Islas Caimán Fil: Bolten, Alan B.. University of Florida; Estados Unidos Fil: McNeill, Joanne Braun. National Ocean And Atmospheric Administration; Estados Unidos Fil: Casale, Paolo. Università degli Studi di Pisa; Italia Fil: Di Domenico, Maikon. Universidade Federal do Paraná; Brasil Fil: Domit, Camila. Universidade Federal do Paraná; Brasil Fil: Epperly, Sheryan P.. National Ocean And Atmospheric Administration; Estados Unidos Fil: Godfrey, Matthew H.. North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission; Estados Unidos. University of North Carolina; Estados Unidos. University of Duke; Estados Unidos Fil: Godley, Brendan J.. University of Exeter; Reino Unido Fil: González Carman, Victoria. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mar del Plata. Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras. Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Mar del Plata. Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras. Subsede Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo Pesquero; Argentina Fil: Hamann, Mark. James Cook University; Australia Fil: Hart, Kristen M.. United States Geological Survey; Estados Unidos Fil: Ishihara, Takashi. Sea Turtle Association of Japan; Japón. Suma Aqualife Park; Japón Fil: Mansfield, Kate L.. University Of Central Florida; Estados Unidos Fil: Metz, Tasha L.. No especifica; Fil: Miller, Jeffrey D.. No especifica; Fil: Pilcher, Nicolas J.. Marine Research Foundation; Malasia Fil: Read, Mark A.. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority; Australia Fil: Sasso, Christopher. National Ocean And Atmospheric Administration; Estados Unidos Fil: Seminoff, Jeffrey A.. National Ocean And Atmospheric Administration; Estados Unidos Fil: Seney, Erin E.. University Of Central Florida; Estados Unidos Fil: Williard, Amanda Southwood. University of North Carolina; Estados Unidos Fil: Tomás, Jesús. Universidad de Valencia; España Fil: Vélez Rubio, Gabriela M.. Universidad de la República; Uruguay. Karumbé Ngo; Uruguay Fil: Ware, Matthew. Florida State University; Estados Unidos Fil: Jessica L. Williams. Tartarugas para o Amanhã; Mozambique Fil: Wyneken, Jeanette. Florida Atlantic University; Estados Unidos Fil: Fuentes, Mariana M. P. B. Florida State University; Estados Unidos

The longnose stingray ( Dasyatis guttata ) is a target species in the artisanal fisheries of the southern Gulf of Venezuela. Despite its economic importance, nowadays, studies about its status are lacking. During six continuous months (18 working days in total), we followed the artisanal fishery activities from Zapara Island, and evaluated morphometric characteristics, sex ratio, and the capture per unit effort (CPUE/ind/1000 hooks) of D. guttata . Biological sampling included: disc widths (AD), body mass total (PT), and sex. Using statistical analysis we assessed: a) the length-weight relationships by sex, b) monthly body condition, using the Fulton Index (K), and c) the CPUE. We evaluated 210 individuals of D. guttata . The mean values of our results were: AD = 64.14 ± 13.18cm (range 32-95 cm); PT = 8.36 ± 4.87 kg (range 0.80- 24.50 kg). The sexual proportion was (2.26♀: 1♂) ( X 2 = 31.716, P < 0.05); hence we presume a spatial segregation occurred between females and males in the studied area. Length-weight relationship was statistically significant (P < 0.0001), and also varied according to the sex ♀: PT(kg) = [(0.00027)×(AD(cm) 2.46 )]; ♂: PT(kg) = [(0.00035)×(AD(cm) 2.34 )]. The K value showed differences between sexes during November and December. We obtained a CPUE of 4.88 individuals/1000 hooks. We compared our findings with previous research carried out in the southern Caribbean. Further research about this species in the area is recommended.

The top‐down and indirect effects of insects on plant communities depend on patterns of host use, which are often poorly documented, particularly in species‐rich tropical forests. At Barro Colorado Island, Panama, we compiled the first food web quantifying trophic interactions between the majority of co‐occurring woody plant species and their internally feeding insect seed predators. Our study is based on more than 200 000 fruits representing 478 plant species, associated with 369 insect species. Insect host‐specificity was remarkably high: only 20% of seed predator species were associated with more than one plant species, while each tree species experienced seed predation from a median of two insect species. Phylogeny, but not plant traits, explained patterns of seed predator attack. These data suggest that seed predators are unlikely to mediate indirect interactions such as apparent competition between plant species, but are consistent with their proposed contribution to maintaining plant diversity via the Janzen–Connell mechanism.

We propose a new classification of rain forest plants into eight fruit syndromes, based on fruit morphology and other traits relevant to fruit‐feeding insects. This classification is compared with other systems based on plant morphology or traits relevant to vertebrate fruit dispersers. Our syndromes are based on fruits sampled from 1,192 plant species at three Forest Global Earth Observatory plots: Barro Colorado Island (Panama), Khao Chong (Thailand), and Wanang (Papua New Guinea). The three plots differed widely in fruit syndrome composition. Plant species with fleshy, indehiscent fruits containing multiple seeds were important at all three sites. However, in Panama, a high proportion of species had dry fruits, while in New Guinea and Thailand, species with fleshy drupes and thin mesocarps were dominant. Species with dry, winged seeds that do not develop as capsules were important in Thailand, reflecting the local importance of Dipterocarpaceae. These differences can also determine differences among frugivorous insect communities. Fruit syndromes and colors were phylogenetically flexible traits at the scale studied, as only three of the eight seed syndromes, and one of the 10 colors, showed significant phylogenetic clustering at either genus or family levels. Plant phylogeny was, however, the most important factor explaining differences in overall fruit syndrome composition among individual plant families or genera across the three study sites.

Forests are complex three-dimensional ecosystems, but little is known about the influence of vertical stratification of forest structure on biodiversity and species turnover. Saproxylic beetles make a substantial contribution to forest biodiversity and ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycling. Management measures aimed at supporting saproxylic biodiversity are becoming an integral part of sustainable forest management practices. Yet, monitoring is carried out under the assumption that saproxylic activity at ground level will be a realistic reflection of saproxylic biodiversity in the forest as a whole. To investigate the validity of this assumption we compare vertical stratification and composition of saproxylic beetle assemblages between three forest types of varying altitude and latitude, including a tropical lowland forest in Panama, a temperate lowland forest and a temperate montane forest, both in the eastern Czech Republic. Beetles were sampled following a standardized sampling protocol using flight intercept traps arranged in vertical transects. Overall, the tropical forest was estimated to harbour two to three times more saproxylic beetle species than the temperate lowland and the montane forest, respectively. However, point richness estimates within vertical strata were remarkably similar between biomes. Species richness was similar in the understorey of all three forests. It peaked in the canopy of the tropical forest but in the understorey of temperate forests. So, while the beetle assemblages were clearly vertically stratified in all three forest types, stratification patterns varied markedly between tropical and temperate forests. This trend is driven primarily by the high richness of saproxylic beetles in the tropical forest canopy. However these richness differences belie the strong similarities in stratification of feeding guild composition observed all three forest types. This would tend to suggest that similar trophic structuring forces might operate across very different forest biomes of the world. Similarities in feeding guild composition suggest that management measures aiming at conserving biodiversity of saproxylic beetles are likely to be effective across different forest types. The differences in vertical stratification, however, suggest that understorey monitoring alone will be insufficient to understand management effects on saproxylic biodiversity. In the tropics, in particular, more emphasis will need to be placed on managing the diverse, three-dimensional structure of forest canopies as habitat for saproxylic beetles.

Insect seed predators are important agents of mortality for tropical trees, but little is known about the impact of these herbivores in rainforests. During 3 years at Khao Chong (KHC) in southern Thailand we reared 17,555 insects from 343.2 kg or 39,252 seeds/fruits representing 357 liana and tree species. A commented list of the 243 insect species identified is provided, with details about their host plants. We observed the following. (i) Approximately 43% of identified species can be considered pests. Most were seed eaters, particularly on dry fruits. (ii) Approximately 19% of parasitoid species (all Opiinae) for which we could determine whether their primary insect host was a pest or not (all Bactrocera spp. breeding in fruits) can be considered beneficials. (iii) The seeds/fruits of approximately 28% of the plant species in this forest were free of attack. Phyllanthaceae, Rubiaceae and Meliaceae were attacked relatively infrequently; in contrast, Annonaceae, Fabaceae, Sapindaceae and Myristicaceae were more heavily attacked. There was no apparent effect of plant phylogeny on rates of attack but heavily attacked tree species had larger basal area in the KHC plot than rarely attacked tree species. (iv) Insects reared from fleshy fruits were more likely to show relatively stable populations compared to insects reared from dry fruits, but this was not true of insects reared from dipterocarps, which appeared to have relatively stable populations throughout the study period. We tentatively conclude that insects feeding on seeds and fruits have little effect on observed levels of host abundance in this forest.

Tortuguero is a small Caribbean village of Costa Rica, where sea turtles have always played a central role in the culture and economy. Historically, Tortuguero based its economy on the exploitation of natural resources, including marine turtles. However, thanks to long term conservation efforts, policy modifications and a change in the mindset of the community, this village is now globally recognized as an example of how marine turtles can be used to generate significant revenue in a non-extractive way, through ecotourism. Nevertheless, poaching of nests and egg trade still occurs in the area. This study identifies the perceptions and attitudes of the local community towards the consumption and trade of sea turtle eggs and its impact on conservation. From October to December 2017, a total of 187 questionnaires were distributed to the community of Tortuguero, and 17 semi-structured interviews were conducted with local key informants. Our results show that sea turtle egg consumption still persists within the community, and it is perceived as a frequent practice (Questionnaire Respondents (QR); 62.2%, n = 51/Interview Respondents (IR); 58.8%, n = 10). There is awareness among villagers about the negative effects of sea turtle egg consumption mainly on the economy (QR; 76.7%, n = 89), tourism (QR; 88.4%, n = 107) and conservation (QR; 87%, n = 107), and the practice is negatively regarded (QR; 77%, n = 107/IR; 76.5%, n = 13). Nevertheless, consumption continues as a traditional practice (QR; 26.7%, n = 28/IR; 41.2%, n = 7), facilitated by the ease to obtain eggs (QR; 19.4%, n = 20/IR; 76.5 n = 13) and the persisting belief of their aphrodisiac properties (QR 18.6%; n = 19/IR 23.5%; n = 4). Despite this and the perceived lack of enforcement, interviewees stated that most consumers do not risk taking the eggs and they buy them from local poachers (IR; 88.2%, n = 15), who are usually associated with substance abuse problems. In addition, most interviewees (94.1%, n = 16) affirmed that consumption in the community has decreased over the last 10 years, and that the majority of eggs extracted from Tortuguero are traded with nearby Caribbean communities (76.5%, n = 13). The destination of the eggs seems to depend on the area from which they were taken and prices range widely depending on the seller and the trade area. Overall, this study provides an improved understanding of the local perception of egg consumption and trade dynamics. Additionally, it provides insights into the challenges of tackling this issue in Costa Rica's Caribbean coast. We hope that our conclusions will contribute to the improvement of current conservation and management strategies in the region.

In the tropics vast areas of natural forests are being converted into plantations. The magnitude of the resulting loss in arthropod biodiversity and associated ecosystem services represents a significant topic of research. In this study we contrasted the abundance, species richness and faunal turnover of butterflies, resident butterflies (i.e., whose host plants were ascertained to occur in the habitats studied) and termites between small (average 4.3 ha) 20+ year old exotic plantations (teak and Terminalia), native plantations (Cedro espino), and an old growth forest in Panama. We used Pollard walks and manual search to quantify the abundance or occurrence of butterflies and termites, respectively. In 2014 we observed 4610 butterflies representing 266 species and 108 termite encounters (out of 160 quadrats) representing 15 species. Butterflies were more abundant and diverse in plantations than in the forest, whereas this pattern was opposite for resident butterflies and termites. There was marked faunal turnover between plantations and forest. We conclude that (a) the magnitude of faunal changes between forest and plantations is less drastic for termites than for butterflies; (b) resident butterfly species are more impacted by the conversion of forest to plantations than all butterflies, including transient species; and (c) species richness does not necessarily decrease in the series forest > native > exotic plantations. Whereas there are advantages of studying more tractable taxa such as butterflies, the responses of such taxa can be highly unrepresentative of other invertebrate groups responsible for different ecological services.

The impact of artisanal fisheries on marine turtle populations is still understudied in the southern Caribbean. In the Venezuelan Guajira Peninsula, artisanal fishing of marine turtles by the indigenous Wayuu people has occurred for generations. Nevertheless, understanding the issues regarding turtle take is challenging. Surveys and semi-structured interviews were carried out at eight landing sites located in three different zones in Kazuzain village, Middle Guajira. Carapaces or plastrons were recorded to estimate take level, and measured to determine life stage. Minimum take was 167 marine turtles over 53 weeks, or 3.15 turtles/week on average (estimated 163.8/yr). Most records encountered were from green turtles (n=154; 92.2%), and the majority of these were immature (n=76; 89.4%). Key-informants reported that marine turtles were not the target catch. However, most interviewees affirmed that take of marine turtles in Kazuzain is not only for traditional purposes, but also to meet economic shortfalls. They also stated that trade of marine turtles has increased over the last ten years due to the Venezuelan economic crisis. This is the first assessment of marine turtle take in this village and fills an information gap that can aid resource managers to mitigate the impacts of take, and develop potential conservation solutions for marine turtle aggregations and the people that depend on them.

The soil fauna of tropical rainforests is difficult to study because of its extreme species richness and taxonomic impediment. Studies of multi-taxon assemblages in the soil of tropical rainforests are relatively rare and studies of interspecific interactions, such as predation, even rarer. Here we attempt to infer prey predator interactions and enemy-free space from the faunal composition of 100 litter/soil samples obtained from Barro Colorado Island in Panama during the dry and wet seasons. We focused on assemblages of ants (assigned to categories of non-predators, potential and confirmed predators), springtails and termites, which were characterized by their Barcode Index Numbers. Overall in 0.2 m3 of soil/litter we collected 2129 ants, 5592 springtails and 260 termites, which represented 80, 104 and 15 species, respectively. The faunal composition of confirmed ant predators was spatially coincident with that of Collembola. However, despite considerable seasonal shifts in the rank abundance of Collembola species, seasonal shifts of confirmed ant predators were low, resulting in a poor match of seasonal shifts between ants and their prey items. No location could be considered as being relatively free of ant enemies for springtails or termites, but the dry season supported higher prey-predator ratios than the wet season. We inferred only 4 possible prey-predator interactions, out of 7616 potential interactions in the study system. The relative dispersion of confirmed ant predators, which only weakly influenced springtail and termite assemblages, suggests low specificity in ant-prey interactions. This confirms that “brown food webs” may be structured by bottom-up effects rather than by top-down effects.

Human societies are closely linked to their ecological environments. Natural ecosystems and wildlife populations are often in better condition in countries with healthy, educated and economically prosperous populations compared to countries with lower health and literacy conditions, and depressed economies. In the latter countries, these socio-economic factors can compromise government's capacity to manage their natural resources. Thus, the conservation capacity of a government is likely to play key role in the protection of threatened species, such as marine turtles. This paper aims: (1) to evaluate the conservation capacity and enforcement within the 58 Regional Management Units (RMUs) of the seven species of marine turtles throughout the world, and (2) to develop a proxy that predicts the conservation status of RMUs. We developed a Conservation and Enforcement Capacity index (CECi) by integrating the following indices: (a) the economic level and, (b) the Human Development Index (HDI) of each country, plus (c) the risks and threats in the RMUs. We used the conservation status of 15 RMUs recently assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature - IUCN to predict the conservation status of the 43 RMUs without updated IUCN categorisation. CECi values ranged from 0 to 1, where lower values represent a better capacity for implementation of conservation initiatives. We found that using our multi-index model, we predicted the status of 33 of 58 RMUs, 57% of which may be of threatened conservation status due to their high CECi values. This study highlighted how socio-economic aspects may impact conservation of endangered species.

Marine turtles are challenging species to protect because they occur over large geographic scales. Tagging individual turtles at nesting beaches and foraging areas, and the resulting mark-recapture data sets have gradually enabled us to understand marine turtle migratory behaviour and dispersal. Within the Caribbean region, several turtle tagging projects have led to longer-term evaluations and assessments of connectivity. Thus, marine turtle mark-recapture data is important for developing conservation strategies at regional-scale. In this study, we analyse turtle tagging data from the Gulf of Venezuela to determine regional (Caribbean and Atlantic geographic level) and local (within the Gulf of Venezuela) links. To achieve this, we retrieved, compiled, and analysed multiple databases with records of marine turtles that were tagged and then recaptured in the Gulf of Venezuela. Sixty-six tag return records were evaluated, 43 from animals initially tagged outside of the Gulf of Venezuela and then recaptured inside, plus 23 records retrieved from turtles that were tagged and recaptured within the Gulf of Venezuela. We found evidence of connectivity between 12 different locations where initial tagging events occurred, eight from other feeding areas and four from nesting beaches. We described four different movement patterns for 23 turtles tagged and re-captured within the Gulf of Venezuela. Most of the recapture records we obtained occurred after the turtles were known, or presumed, to have been killed by local fishers. Hence, knowing patterns of dispersal and connectivity are crucial to improving local and regional conservation and threat mitigation.

Small cetaceans, such as the Guiana dolphin (Sotalia guianensis), do not migrate long distances to forage but use rather small areas subject to food source variations. Information on their distribution, behaviour, habitat use, and estimated population density play an important role in the identification of critical areas and regulating human activities within. Here we examine the seasonal variations, group size, and distribution of Guiana dolphin in the southern Gulf of Venezuela, to identify their critical habitats and thus aid mitigation planning. We used boat-based surveys with a follow-group protocol where observers monitor groups of animals for 30 min, from a distance of 20 to 30 m, gathering the following data: date, time observed, GPS position, estimated number of individuals, presence of calves, behavioural observations (when possible); and environmental parameters (sea-surface temperature, water transparency, salinity, sea state [Beaufort], and cloud cover). We found that Guiana dolphins did not use the studied area (6.33 km2) homogeneously but rather aggregated in north of Zapara Island’s retaining wall. The highest density of dolphins was between 301 and 573 individuals within 4.22 km2 approximately off north of Zapara Island, and the lowest (1 - 150 individuals) at the entrance of the main navigation channel. The group size was considerably larger in the wet season (mean ± SD = 6.4 ± 1.9 individuals, range = 1 to 80) than the dry season (2.2 ± 2.7 individuals, range = 1 to 27). The number of sightings differed among seasons (dry/wet), there were more sightings in the wet season (1.3414 ± 0.4389 groups, range = 1 to 5) than dry season (1.1233 ± 0.7418 groups, range = 1 to 5). Our data suggest this population might be highly adapted to local conditions and prey movements, and use the areas intensely year around, particularly during the wet season.

Aim Insects feeding on seeds and fruits represent interesting study systems, potentially able to lower the fitness of their host plants. In addition to true seed eaters, a suite of insects feed on the fleshy parts of fruits. We examined the likelihood of community convergence in whole insect assemblages attacking seeds/fruits in three tropical rainforests. Location Three ForestGEO permanent forest plots within different biogeographical regions: Barro Colorado Island (Panama), Khao Chong (Thailand) and Wanang (Papua New Guinea). Methods We surveyed 1,186 plant species and reared 1.1 ton of seeds/fruits that yielded 80,600 insects representing at least 1,678 species. We assigned seeds/fruits to predation syndromes on the basis of plant traits relevant to insects, seed/fruit appearance and mesocarp thickness. Results We observed large differences in insect faunal composition, species richness and guild structure between our three study sites. We hypothesize that the high species richness of insect feeding on seeds/fruits in Panama may result from a conjunction of low plant species richness and high availability of dry fruits. Insect assemblages were weakly influenced by seed predation syndromes, both at the local and regional scale, and the effect of host phylogeny varied also among sites. At the driest site (Panama), the probability of seeds of a plant species being attacked depended more on seed availability than on the measured seed traits of that plant species. However when seeds were attacked, plant traits shaping insect assemblages were difficult to identify and not related to seed availability. Main conclusions We observed only weak evidence of community convergence at the intercontinental scale among these assemblages. Our study suggests that seed eaters may be most commonly associated with dry fruits at relatively dry tropical sites where fleshy fruits may be less prevalent.

Background Marine turtles play an important role in the culture and economy of numerous coastal communities around the world. However, the legal framework that regulates the consumptive use of these reptiles varies among countries.For example, the consumption of these reptiles has been regarded as common in several rural areas of Venezuela, especially in the eastern coast of the Guajira Peninsula. Methods To assess the scale and cultural component of this use, we interviewed 35 residents from the southwestern coast of the Gulf of Venezuela (Venezuelan part of the Guajira Peninsula), using a combination of in-depth and semi-structured interviews. We carried out a field and detailed market-based observations on the Guajira Peninsula to detect the sale and use of marine turtle products. We focused on three main categories of use; the type of product, routes of trade, and the price of products. Results All of the marine turtle species reported from the Gulf of Venezuela were used, and the prices of products varied among their type, species of origin, and the distance from the capture area to a marketplace. We obtained evidence connecting Wayuú Indigenous people's traditions and beliefs with marine turtle use, and also they are used as traditional products such as medicine, and as an economic resource to sustain their communities. Conclusion It is probable that trade of marine turtle products is placing pressure on populations in the Gulf of Venezuela. We recommend the implementation of an inter-institutional conservation-portfolio be developed for the Peninsula to evaluate actions related to this concern.

International audience; We have little knowledge of the response of invertebrate assemblages to climate change in tropical ecosystems, and few studies have compiled long-term data on invertebrates from tropical rainforests. We provide an updated list of the 72 species of Saturniidae moths collected on Barro Colorado Island (BCI), Panama, during the period 1958-2016. This list will serve as baseline data for assessing long-term changes of saturniids on BCI in the future, as 81% of the species can be identified by their unique DNA Barcode Index Number, including four cryptic species not yet formally described. A local species pool of 60 + species breeding on BCI appears plausible, but more cryptic species may be discovered in the future. We use monitoring data obtained by light trapping to analyze recent population trends on BCI for saturniid species that were relatively common during 2009-2016, a period representing >30 saturniid generations. The abundances of 11 species, of 14 tested, could be fitted to significant time-series models. While the direction of change in abundance was uncertain for most species, two species showed a significant increase over time, and forecast models also suggested continuing increases for most species during 2017-2018, as compared to the 2009 base year. Peaks in saturniid abundance were most conspicuous during El Nino and La Nina years. In addition to a species-specific approach, we propose a reproducible functional classification based on five functional traits to analyze the responses of species sharing similar functional attributes in a fluctuating climate. Our results suggest that the abundances of larger body-size species with good dispersal abilities may increase concomitantly with rising air temperature in the future, because short-lived adults may allocate less time to increasing body temperature for flight, leaving more time available for searching for mating partners or suitable oviposition sites.

Marine turtles are considered by people of several cultures to be a gift from God. This belief often leads to the use of these reptiles in the traditional and belief systems among aboriginal peoples. Certainly this is the case among Wayuu people, who are an indigenous group settled between Venezuela and Colombia, in the Guajira Peninsula. To assess the value of marine turtles to Wayuu ancestral people, especially as a medicinal resource, we carried out a comprehensive open-ended question-based survey of traditional healers and caretakers (locally known as Piaches and Outsus) from 4 Wayuu communities in the Venezuelan portion of the Guajira Peninsula. We documented customary practices where marine turtles' body parts are used as a key element of the remedies. Eleven marine turtle body parts were identified by respondents as remedies used by Wayuu people, with 7 different ways to administer them (drink, worn, powder, among others). Four of the 5 species of marine turtles present in Venezuelan waters were identified as being used in the traditional pharmacopoeia of Wayuu people; their traditional names are included on this article. Some considerations about the Wayuu's cosmovision, customs, traditions, and belief systems are included here. Our results are important in the context of likely future evaluation of the current Venezuelan legal framework to consider inclusion of traditional use of marine turtles in Venezuela. Abstract [Spanish] Las tortugas marinas son consideradas por diversas culturas como un regalo proveniente de Dios. Es en esta creencia en la que usualmente se basan las tradiciones y costumbres de numerosas comunidades indigenas que utilizan a estos reptiles a nivel global. Ciertamente, este es el caso de los indigenas Wayuu, grupo el cual se encuentra asentado entre Colombia y Venezuela, en la Peninsula de la Guajira. Se realizo una valoracion ancestral de las tortugas marinas para los indigenas Wayuu, con especial enfasis en los usos medicinales, se llevaron a cabo una evaluacion comprensiva y exhaustiva, la cual incluyo entrevistas y encuestas con preguntas abiertas, a pobladores Wayuu con amplio conocimiento sobre las practicas medicinales tradicionales (conocidos localmente como Piaches y Outsus) en comunidades localizadas en la porcion venezolana de la Peninsula de la Guajira (territorio ancestral Wayuu). Se documentaron las practicas y costumbres en las que diversas partes del cuerpo de la tortuga marina juegan un papel primordial en la creacion y aplicacion de estos remedios tradicionales. Los entrevistados identificaron hasta once diferentes partes del cuerpo de la tortuga marina que son utilizados en la elaboracion de remedios, asi como siete diferentes formas de administracion de la medicina (tomada, untada, granulada, entre otros). Cuatro de las cinco especies de tortugas marinas presentes en las aguas territoriales venezolanas fueron identificadas como parte importante de la farmacopea tradicional de los indigenas Wayuu, en este articulo se incluyen los nombres tradicionales en Wayuunaikii de estos reptiles. Asi mismo, en la presente investigacion se mencionan algunas consideraciones sobre la cosmovision, costumbres, tradiciones y creencias Wayuu. Estos resultados son importantes en el contexto de una posible futura revision del marco ambiental legal venezolano para considerar una posible inclusion de estos usos tradicionales de tortugas marinas en Venezuela.

We evaluated the larval host plant specificity of Cerambycidae in a tropical lowland rainforest in Panama.Beetleswere reared from standardized timber baits of freshly-cut wood exposed for 35 days to ovipositing females in the Galeta Island Protected Area, Colon province, Panama. Baits from six species of woody plants belonging to five families yielded 109 longhorn beetles, representing 11 species in nine genera.Host specificity was low,with themajority of longhorn species reared fromwood of more than one plant family. Only the genus Inga Mill. (Fabaceae) hosted a possibly specialized species (Cosmotoma fasciata Fisher). Longhorn abundance and diversity were highest in Gustavia superba (Kunth) O. Berg (Lecythidaceae). Most adults emerged four and six months after the timber baits were exposed. Fifty-seven percent of longhorn beetles were reared from low wood density trees (400–460 kg/m3); we do not have enough data to propose reliable wood density preferences for other cerambycids reared in this study. More rearing samples will be required to support the results shown in this paper.

Assessing Creepy Crawlies Arthropods are the most diverse group of terrestrial animal species, yet estimates of the total number of arthropod species have varied widely, especially for tropical forests. Basset et al. (p. 1481 , see the cover) now provide more reliable estimates of total arthropod species richness in a tropical rainforest in Panama. Intensive sampling of a half hectare of forest yielded just over 6000 arthropod species. Scaling up this result to the whole forest suggests that the total species diversity lies between 17,000 and 40,000 species.

The fossil record demonstrates that past climate changes and extinctions significantly affected the diversity of insect leaf-feeding damage, implying that the richness of damage types reflects that of the unsampled damage makers, and that the two are correlated through time. However, this relationship has not been quantified for living leaf-chewing insects, whose richness and mouthpart convergence have obscured their value for understanding past and present herbivore diversity. We hypothesized that the correlation of leaf-chewing damage types (DTs) and damage maker richness is directly observable in living forests. Using canopy access cranes at two lowland tropical rainforest sites in Panamá to survey 24 host-plant species, we found significant correlations between the numbers of leaf chewing insect species collected and the numbers of DTs observed to be made by the same species in feeding experiments, strongly supporting our hypothesis. Damage type richness was largely driven by insect species that make multiple DTs. Also, the rank-order abundances of DTs recorded at the Panamá sites and across a set of latest Cretaceous to middle Eocene fossil floras were highly correlated, indicating remarkable consistency of feeding-mode distributions through time. Most fossil and modern host-plant pairs displayed high similarity indices for their leaf-chewing DTs, but informative differences and trends in fossil damage composition became apparent when endophytic damage was included. Our results greatly expand the potential of insect-mediated leaf damage for interpreting insect herbivore richness and compositional heterogeneity from fossil floras and, equally promisingly, in living forests.