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Nonliving resources frequently flow across ecosystem boundaries, which can yield networks of spatially coupled ecosystems. Yet the significance of resource flows for ecosystem function has predominantly been understood by studying two or a few coupled ecosystems, overlooking the broader resource flow network and its spatial structure. Here, we investigate how the spatial structure of larger resource flow networks influences ecosystem function at metaecosystem scales by analyzing metaecosystem models with homogeneously versus heterogeneously distributed resource flow networks but otherwise identical characteristics. We show that metaecosystem function can differ strongly between metaecosystems with contrasting resource flow networks. Differences in function generally arise through the scaling up of nonlinear local processes interacting with spatial variation in local dynamics, the latter of which is influenced by network structure. However, we find that neither network structure guarantees the greatest metaecosystem function. Rather, biotic (organism traits) and abiotic (resource flow rates) properties interact with network structure to determine which yields greater metaecosystem function. Our findings suggest that the spatial structure of resource flow networks coupling ecosystems can be a driver of ecosystem function at landscape scales. Furthermore, our study demonstrates how modifications to the structural, biotic, or abiotic properties of metaecosystem networks can have nontrivial large-scale effects on ecosystem function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rural and rural-urban linkages are in terms of different flows that give the spatial structure of the regions a known entity. Therefore, in the past few decades, we have seen the attention of planners to the network approach and the basic interaction between different points and topics. Considering the importance of this issue, the aim of the current research is to investigate the relationship between rural settlements and the city of Shaft located in Jirdeh in the central part of Shaft with a network analysis approach. The research method is a descriptive-analytical type, which was carried out by a survey method. The statistical population consisted of 33 villagers, members of the Islamic Council of the villages of Jiredeh and Shaft, and a matrix questionnaire was implemented in order to measure the relationships between them. Also, the theory and model of network analysis using Ucinet software and tests of density, degree, ambidexterity, transferability, E-I, etc. have been used to analyze the data and various graphs have been used to show relationships. The results show that there is little network cohesion and cooperation between the studied villages at the village level. The low level of the density index at the level of the network or two-way shows that there are few relationships and most of the flows are one-way and towards the city of the shaft. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the consequences of the instability of Settlement System in local- regional spaces is the functional - spatial disability of rural and urban settlements in the in creating the settlement connection through a effective spatial network. In many of the geographical areas in the country, the patterns of economic activity based settlement system network is formed that due to negligence of the cognition and analysis of structural-functional of this local networks, urban and rural settlements instability is escalated. in the rural areas of Hashtrood and Charoymaq (macro-region of Azerbaijan), the local-regional network is creating, based on the production and processing of milk products. For cognition and structural -functional analysis of this product in settlements relationships and spatial flows, 119 dairy workhouses, 269 rural settlements and 5 urban settlements was evaluated. The research method of this research is the combination of descriptive – analytical Data sampling method was the snowball method and data analyzed through NodeXL and GIS software. The results showed that relationships and flows of the milk production network in the hurdles in realm faced the barrier and in Reciprocity extra-regional centers is interactive and complementary. Based on the reciprocital of relations, Degree centrality, Between ness centrality and Eigenvector centrality of the Bostan Abad city outside the studied areas recognized as the main node in the network structure of the studied region’s milk and following this, was the urban centers of Tabriz, Maragheh, Ghareaghaj and Hashtrood and ganjine ketab rural with a significant difference. Sustainable pattern of local-regional network in the mentioned metropolitan area can be achieved with modification in the functional structure of urban and rural settlements through the functional allocation of activities and

Over the past a few decades we have seen some changes on planners and Geographers' view about place and base pattern toward systematic analysis and base interaction. This change of view causes to focus on these flows and formed links between points and nods. The current study aimed to investigate the formed flows between Khash and its surrounding rural areas within an area network approach. Due to the network approach, analysis unit in research is flaw and relation. In order to validate the research a questionnaire, observation and secondary information (Population census and housing) are used. The data are analyzed in the form of system analysis and through the UCINET . The statistical population of this study are the central rural areas of Khash. Due to the extent of study area and high volume of statistical society, in order to determine the sample size, probabilistic classification sampling method is used. This sampling is done according to the two criteria: the distance from Khash and rural areas population. The findings of the research show that Khash is in the first place concerning absorption of flows within the area due to its high level of services, markets and creating carrier opportunities and Zahedan is in the second place in all flows, despite being outside of the area. After that due to the establishment of services in some big rural areas of Khash ,it has attracted considerable flows to itself. The pattern of spatial flows in this area , is similar to growth pole theory in many respects and does not have network pattern. Its reason is that two-way, complementary and synergistic flows haven’t formed yet.

In recent years, rural settlements have undergone changes due to physio-spatial changes. The acceleration of these changes has been so much that many villages have undergone structural and physical changes, or sometimes slowly joined the body of cities. There are different spatial flows between the metropolitans and surrounding settlements. These flows have shaped many of the developments in the rural areas. The purpose of this study is to analyse the trend of spatial flows affected by rural-urban interactions and the physio-spatial transformation of rural settlements in the northern Tankaman district located around the Karaj metropolitan via the means of descriptive-analytic methods. Karaj metropolitan area is one of the most important areas of this spatial transformation - a space where the focus of capital, industries, facilities and services has brought about its physical and functional growth. Such rapid growth and the ruling trends, from the physio-spatial perspective have implications such as comprehensive transformations in the construction and fabrication of peripheral villages, in particular in the pattern of housing, deformation for communication access, land-use change, severe service shortages, Inappropriate access and ... in peripheral villages. The present study is a quantitative, functional and survey based in data gathering, which questionnaires and interview methods were used to collect data and information. According to the statistics of 1390, the total of ten villages in North Tankaman were selected. The ten villages have a total population of 11,509. Of these, 372 people were selected as the sample size using the Cochran formula. To determine the reliability of the questionnaire, Cronbach's alpha coefficient was used. The calculation of this amount was 0.80 for the authorities. The variables of the indicators were designed in the form of a questionnaire and provided to the rural population. To analyze and deduce, depending on the research objectives and the type of data available, descriptive statistics were used such as frequency and percentage and GIS software. The results of the findings of the housing developments in the study area show that the overall average of the Likert spectrum for the increase in the number of residential units with the Urban Architecture model is 3.68, which is the most significant, reflecting the change in the pattern of rural housing architecture in the northern Takaman district, which is like other rural areas of the country. The change in the pattern of rural housing architecture and its similarity to urban housing pattern has been considered by most of its appearances and has grown more than other indicators such as resistance and improving the quality of housing. Part of livelihood units are assigned to commercial units, and some residential units are also allocated to livelihoods units. Analysis of the results of Pearson correlation test for research variables shows that there is a positive and direct relationship between rural-urban spatial interactions and physio-spatial transformation indices, in which all correlations are strong. The physio-spatial system, as one of the sub regions of rural spaces, is not only influenced by the internal factors of this system but is also influenced by its external (external) elements along with other subsystems in transition. Among the external environmental factors, the system of cities and the type of their spatial interactions with rural areas is one of the most important factors influencing rural development, especially the physio-spatial system. The research findings have shown that the evolution of the physio-spatial system of the studied villages under its systems has been strongly underway. These developments, some of which have positive aspects and some also negatively, have had implications for the villages. Among the influencing factors, the type, form and scope of interactions of villages with peripheral cities has played a significant role in this development. The flow of goods and services, capital, along with the flow of people, which has a one-way and sometimes two-way structure (in line of providing the interests of the cities), has provided the basis for this transformation.

Spatial flows between urban and rural area in the form of urban-rural linkages have an important role in the regional integrated development. These flows are change due to natural, economic, social and political factors. One of the geographical territory that has changed naturally is BonRud District and Jolgeh in Isfahan County. Interaction between urban and rural settlements has realized by different flows of population, goods, services, capital, information and communication in this area that has leaded to formation of spatial organization in the area. In this paper, the spatial flows have analyzed by network approach. Present research is explorative based on nature and descriptive-analytic in the aspect of method. Statistical society of the study are all urban and rural settlements of the area. Research required data are collected through field study, interview, and questionnaire. Secondary data collected from archives of responsible organs and institutions. Collected dada have analyzed in the frame of network paradigm, network analyze method and using Nodexl software. Research finding shows that spatial linkage reflects the spatial unbalanced in distribution of possibilities and services in the area. Therefore, settlements of Harand, Varzaneh, Imamzade abdolaziz are in the ranks of one, two and three respectively. The pattern of flows is a daily, regular, and one-sided pattern. This pattern is in many respects consistent with the profile of growth pole theory. This pattern of flows cannot be considered as urban-rural linkage. The recent decade drought has strengthened the urban Polar Regions and strengthened the growth polar pattern in the region.

The main purpose of the article is a critical evaluation of current administrative regions in the Czech Republic from a spatial point of view. The post-socialist transformation processes took place very quickly in the Czech Republic and they strongly influenced the spatial organization of the society. The study is focused on the present administrative organization of the Czech Republic in form of the ‘districts of municipalities with extended competence’. We evaluate their role in fulfilling the spatial equity principle through the time accessibility of the administrative centers from their administrative regions and through current socio-economic spatial flows (expressed by daily commuting).The study brings important results of current spatial arrangement of public administration in the Czech Republic. The most problematic administrative regions in the Czech Republic in terms of their accessibility and their role in space are also mentioned. The results could be useful both in research and practice.

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Nowadays, changes in food consumption patterns due to urbanization, increasing per capita consumption, economic growth and the move from local to global in the consumer markets necessitate ensuring food security for different countries, especially developing ones. This study investigates the impact of rural-urban linkages affected by spatial flows on food security. The present research method is quantitative and has been conducted by employing a descriptive-analytical method. The research population consisted of households in peri-urban villages of Dehdasht. Twenty one villages were randomly selected using Cochran's formula. 358 households were randomly selected from 3538 households using Cochran's formula. Correlation and regression analysis were conducted using SPSS to analyze the collected data. In addition, the structural equation model (SEM) of partial least squares regression (PLS) method was applied using SMART PLS 3. The results indicate that rural-urban linkages affected by spatial flows (independent variable) with a T value of 27.678 and a path coefficient of 0.745 have a positive effect on food security (dependent variable). Moreover, the results of multivariate linear regression showed that the social linkage and the economic linkage variable with the values 0.509 and 0.151 respectively had the greatest and the least impact on food security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some fifty years in the development of ideas about the definition and use of functional regions are elaborated in this article, as an introduction to this Special Issue of the Moravian Geographical Reports. The conceptual basis for functional regions is discussed, initially in relation to region-organising interactions and their behavioural foundations. This paper presents an approach to functional regions which presumes that such regions objectively exist and that they are based on more or less tangible processes (however, a different view of regions is also briefly described). A typology of functional regions is presented and the development of methods for finding a definition of functional regions is discussed, as well as a typology for these methods. The final part of this article stresses the importance of functional regions in geographical research, and introduces some emerging new prospects in the study of functional regions.

Rural - urban broad and diverse relationships and interactions have important effects on human settlements in the form of population flows, goods, capital, information, innovation and ideas. Many of the developments that occur in towns and villages are results of rate and way of interactions between these spaces. The aim of this study is to evaluate the factors and mechanisms affecting rural- urban linkages of Karaj Metropolitan and surrounding villages and the impact of these links on rural spatial organization in the framework of regional network approach. The statistical sampling for this research comprised of 11 villages of Mohammad Abad district among them six villages have been chosen as a case sample using estimation method. Also, according to the survey purpose, 342 households were selected as sample using Cochran formula. Research samples were selected (both village and household) using distance and random sampling methods, respectively. Collecting information in this article has been carried out based on library and field studies. In field studies, required data and information have been collected using questioning and observation techniques and tools, such as questionnaires and observation card. Descriptive and inferential statistics, TOPSIS technique and SPSS software has been used for data analysis. Research findings show that, spatial flows, especially those of capital and people (population) interactions in the rural - urban area of study provides strong, physical- spatial changes (system of land use, housing, etc.) .But these developments have not positive in all dimensions and in all the villages and negative developments have followed as well (including land use changes in pomology and olericulture farming areas, and urban stlyle housing patterns) In fact, the lack of spatial planning for shaping organized and controlled flows and connections, as well as ignorance about the role of Karaj and its surrounding rural settlements has led to shortcomings is management of flows and connection modalities, and has therefore prevented development in the region.

Conserving and managing global natural capital requires an understanding of the complexity of flows of ecosystem services across geographic boundaries. Failing to understand and to incorporate these flows into national and international ecosystem assessments leads to incomplete and potentially skewed conclusions, impairing society’s ability to identify sustainable management and policy choices. In this paper, we synthesise existing knowledge and develop a conceptual framework for analysing interregional ecosystem service flows. We synthesise the types of such flows, the characteristics of sending and receiving socio-ecological systems, and the impacts of ecosystem service flows on interregional sustainability. Using four cases (trade of certified coffee, migration of northern pintails, flood protection in the Danube watershed, and information on giant pandas), we test the conceptual framework and show how an enhanced understanding of interregional telecouplings in socio-ecological systems can inform ecosystem service-based decision making and governance with respect to sustainability goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecosystems are linked to neighbouring ecosystems not only by dispersal, but also by the movement of subsidy. Such subsidy couplings between ecosystems have important landscape-scale implications because perturbations in one ecosystem may affect community structure and functioning in neighbouring ecosystems via increased/decreased subsidies. Here, we combine a general theoretical approach based on harvesting theory and a two-patch protist meta-ecosystem experiment to test the effect of regional perturbations on local community dynamics. We first characterized the relationship between the perturbation regime and local population demography on detritus production using a mathematical model. We then experimentally simulated a perturbation gradient affecting connected ecosystems simultaneously, thus altering cross-ecosystem subsidy exchanges. We demonstrate that the perturbation regime can interact with local population dynamics to trigger unexpected temporal variations in subsidy pulses from one ecosystem to another. High perturbation intensity initially led to the highest level of subsidy flows; however, the level of perturbation interacted with population dynamics to generate a crash in subsidy exchange over time. Both theoretical and experimental results show that a perturbation regime interacting with local community dynamics can induce a collapse in population levels for recipient ecosystems. These results call for integrative management of human-altered landscapes that takes into account regional dynamics of both species and resource flows. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bivariate association analyses of spatial flows can reveal the spatial dependence of two types of spatial flows. However, existing studies involving the detection of the bivariate associations of spatial flows focused on two distinct populations without considering the effect of joint distribution patterns. In this paper, we propose the flow colocation quotient (FCLQ), which is extended from the colocation quotient, to measure the bivariate association between categories of spatial flows considering the joint distribution. We developed two versions of the FCLQ: the global FCLQ, which is applied to measure the overall spatial association pattern, and the local FCLQ, which is used to identify the spatial heterogeneity of spatial association. To further test the statistical significance of the FCLQ values, we perform a Monte Carlo simulation under the null hypothesis with random labeling. Six synthetic datasets with different preset patterns are applied to verify the effectiveness of the FCLQ approach. A case study of bike-sharing trip data from Xiamen Island demonstrates the usefulness of the FCLQ in comparative analyses of three bike sharing platforms. • The FCLQ is proposed to measure the bivariate spatial association of discrete flow data considering the joint distribution. • The FCLQ method mitigates the significant bias of the distribution pattern of the underlying population when a clustering pattern is observed. • The global FCLQ is applied to measure the overall spatial association pattern, and the local FCLQ is used to identify the spatial heterogeneity of spatial association. • The synthetic test demonstrates the effectiveness of the FCLQ in identifying spatial association patterns. • The case study verifies the practicality of the FCLQ in comparative analyses of three bike sharing platforms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural resource management requires spatially explicit tools to assess the current state of landscapes, to analyse trends and to develop suitable management strategies and interventions. The concept of ecosystem services can help in understanding the importance of natural resources for different stakeholders and at different spatial and temporal scales. Simple methods to map ecosystem services using scoring of land cover types are particularly useful in data scarce regions, but do not reflect the dynamics of supply and demand. Within this study, GIS scripts were developed to represent and assess several different modes of ecosystem service flows between supply and demand, using ecosystem services scoring tables. By integrating the flows, the ecosystem services can be better evaluated. The outcomes do not give quantitative information on whether supply meets demand, but indicate the spatial distributions of both supply and delivery and where ecosystem services are under threat because of changes in ecosystem or flow mechanisms. The scripts allow us to identify sites that are vulnerable to ecosystem service loss and to evaluate possible management scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As societal demand for food, water and other life-sustaining resources grows, the science of ecosystem services (ES) is seen as a promising tool to improve our understanding, and ultimately the management, of increasingly uncertain supplies of critical goods provided or supported by natural ecosystems. This promise, however, is tempered by a relatively primitive understanding of the complex systems supporting ES, which as a result are often quantified as static resources rather than as the dynamic expression of human-natural systems. This article attempts to pinpoint the minimum level of detail that ES science needs to achieve in order to usefully inform the debate on environmental securities, and discusses both the state of the art and recent methodological developments in ES in this light. We briefly review the field of ES accounting methods and list some desiderata that we deem necessary, reachable and relevant to address environmental securities through an improved science of ES. We then discuss a methodological innovation that, while only addressing these needs partially, can improve our understanding of ES dynamics in data-scarce situations. The methodology is illustrated and discussed through an application related to water security in the semi-arid landscape of the Great Ruaha river of Tanzania. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Recent ecosystem services research has highlighted the importance of spatial connectivity between ecosystems and their beneficiaries. Despite this need, a systematic approach to ecosystem service flow quantification has not yet emerged. In this article, we present such an approach, which we formalize as a class of agent-based models termed “Service Path Attribution Networks” (SPANs). These models, developed as part of the Artificial Intelligence for Ecosystem Services (ARIES) project, expand on ecosystem services classification terminology introduced by other authors. Conceptual elements needed to support flow modeling include a service's rivalness, its flow routing type (e.g., through hydrologic or transportation networks, lines of sight, or other approaches), and whether the benefit is supplied by an ecosystem's provision of a beneficial flow to people or by absorption of a detrimental flow before it reaches them. We describe our implementation of the SPAN framework for five ecosystem services and discuss how to generalize the approach to additional services. SPAN model outputs include maps of ecosystem service provision, use, depletion, and flows under theoretical, possible, actual, inaccessible, and blocked conditions. We highlight how these different ecosystem service flow maps could be used to support various types of decision making for conservation and resource management planning. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

n algorithm is proposed for calculating the parameters of weak shock waves at large distances from their origination. In chosen meridional planes, the parameters of the near field of the three-dimensional flow are used to determine the streamwise coordinates of 'phantom bodies' by linear relations. When the initial body is replaced by a system of 'phantom bodies' for which discrete values of the Whitham function are found, the far-field parameters are calculated by the Whitham theory, independently in each meridional plane. Results calculated for a body with axial symmetry and for bodies with spatial symmetry are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite a recent emphasis on understanding cross-habitat interactions, few studies have examined the ecological linkages between lakes and surrounding terrestrial habitats. The current paradigm of land–lake interactions is typically unidirectional: the view is that nutrients and matter are transported downslope from the surrounding watershed to their ultimate lacustrine destination. Emergent aquatic insects, which spend their larval stages in lake sediments and emerge as adults to mate over land, can act as vectors of material, energy and nutrients from aquatic to terrestrial habitats. In this study, we document a gradient of midge (Diptera: Chironomidae) infall rates into terrestrial habitats (measured as g dw midges m−2 d−1) surrounding eight lakes in Northern Iceland (≈66°N latitude). Lakes ranged from having virtually no midge infall (for example, Helluvaðstjörn, 0.03 g m−2 d−1) to extreme levels (for example, Mývatn, 19 g m−2 d−1) with abundances of midges decreasing logarithmically with distance from shore. Annual midge input rates are estimated as high as 1200–2500 kg midges ha−1 y−1. As midges are approximately 9.2% total N, this can result in a significant fertilization effect of terrestrial habitats with consequences for plant quality and community structure. In addition, we used naturally-occurring δ13C and δ15N isotopes to examine food web structure and diet sources of terrestrial arthropod consumers surrounding lakes with differing amounts of midge input. Terrestrial arthropods showed increased utilization of aquatic-derived (that is, midge) C relative to terrestrial sources as midge infall increased. This pattern was particularly pronounced for predators, such as spiders and opiliones, and some detritivores (Collembola). These findings suggest that, despite being largely ignored, aquatic-to-terrestrial linkages can be large and midges can fuel terrestrial communities by directly serving as resources for predators and decomposers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spatial flows of materials and organisms across ecosystem boundaries are ubiquitous. Understanding the consequences of these flows should be a basic goal of ecosystem science, and yet it has received scant theoretical treatment to date. Here, using a simple, open, nutrient-limited ecosystem model with trophic interactions, we explore theoretically how spatial flows affect the functioning of local ecosystems, how physical mass-balance constraints interact with biological demographic constraints in the regulation of this functioning, and how failure to consider these constraints explicitly can lead to models that are ecologically inconsistent. In particular, we show that standard prey-dependent models for trophic interactions may lead to implausible outcomes when embedded in an ecosystem context with appropriate mass flows and mass-balance constraints. Our analysis emphasizes the need for integration of population, community, and ecosystem perspectives in ecology and the critical consequences of assuming closed versus open systems.

Ecologists increasingly recognize that a consideration of spatial dynamics is essential for resolving many classical problems in community ecology. In the present paper, I argue that understanding how trophic interactions influence population stability can have important implications for the expression of spatial processes. I use two examples to illustrate this point. The first example has to do with spatial determinants of food chain length. Prior theoretical and empirical work has suggested that colonization–extinction dynamics can influence food chain length, at least for specialist consumers. I briefly review evidence and prior theory that food chain length is sensitive to area. A metacommunity scenario, in which each of various patches can have a food chain varying in length (but in which a consumer is not present on a patch unless its required resource is also present), shows that alternative landscape states are possible. This possibility arises if top predators moderate unstable interactions between intermediate predators and basal resources. The second example has to do with the impact of recurrent immigration on the stability of persistent populations. Immigration can either stabilize or destabilize local population dynamics. Moreover, an increase in immigration can decrease average population size for unstable populations with direct density-dependence, or in predator–prey systems with saturating functional responses. These theoretical models suggest that the interplay of temporal variation and spatial fluxes can lead to novel qualitative phenomena. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]