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Background: Huntington's disease (HD) is a rare neurodegenerative disorder caused by an expansion of the CAG trinucleotide repeat in the huntingtin gene which encodes the mutant huntingtin protein (mHTT) that is associated with HD-related neuropathophysiology. Noninvasive visualization of mHTT aggregates in the brain, with positron emission tomography (PET), will allow to reliably evaluate the efficacy of therapeutic interventions in HD. This study aimed to assess the radiation burden of [18F]CHDI-650, a novel fluorinated mHTT radioligand, in humans based on both in vivo and ex vivo biodistribution in mice and subsequent determination of dosimetry for dosing in humans. Results: Wild-type male and female CD-1 Swiss mice (n = 15/sex) were used to assess in vivo PET imaging-based and ex vivo biodistribution-based tracer distribution of [18F]CHDI-650 at 30-, 60-, 120-, 240- and 360-min post-injection. Three-dimensional volumes of interest of the organs were drawn on the co-registered PET/CT image and organs were collected after dissection. Organ radioactivity levels were determined using both modalities. The residence time was calculated and extrapolated to human phantoms. The absorbed and effective doses were computed with OLINDA/EXM 2.2 and IDAC-Dose2.1. Ex vivo and PET-imaging biodistribution of [18F]CHDI-650 showed rapid washout after 30 min in most of the organs with the highest uptake in the gallbladder and urine in mice. Extrapolation of the data to human phantoms with OLINDA showed a total mean in vivo based effective dose of 21.7 μSv/MBq with the highest equivalent organ dose in the urinary bladder wall (4.52 μSv/MBq). The total mean ex vivo based effective dose was calculated to be 20.6 μSv/MBq. The highest equivalent organ dose ex vivo in the urinary bladder wall was estimated to be 4.22 μSv/MBq. The predicted exposure in humans using IDAC-Dose correlated well to those obtained with OLINDA for both in vivo and ex vivo measurements (r = 0.9320 and r = 0.9368, respectively). Conclusions: Dosimetry analysis indicated absorbed and effective doses of [18F]CHDI-650 are well below the recommended limits, suggesting that the radioligand is suitable for clinical assessment. Based on the highest effective dose estimates, an injection of 370 MBq in humans would result in a radiation dose of 8.03 mSv. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Radiation delivery with ultra‐high dose rate (FLASH) radiotherapy (RT) holds promise for improving treatment outcomes and reducing side effects but poses challenges in radiation delivery accuracy due to its ultra‐high dose rates. This necessitates the development of novel imaging and verification technologies tailored to these conditions. Purpose: Our study explores the effectiveness of proton‐induced acoustic imaging (PAI) in tracking the Bragg peak in three dimensions and in real time during FLASH proton irradiations, offering a method for volumetric beam imaging at both conventional and FLASH dose rates. Methods: We developed a three‐dimensional (3D) PAI technique using a 256‐element ultrasound detector array for FLASH dose rate proton beams. In the study, we tested protoacoustic signal with a beamline of a FLASH‐capable synchrocyclotron, setting the distal 90% of the Bragg peak around 35 mm away from the ultrasound array. This configuration allowed us to assess various total proton radiation doses, maintaining a consistent beam output of 21 pC/pulse. We also explored a spectrum of dose rates, from 15 Gy/s up to a FLASH rate of 48 Gy/s, by administering a set number of pulses. Furthermore, we implemented a three‐dot scanning beam approach to observe the distinct movements of individual Bragg peaks using PAI. All these procedures utilized a proton beam energy of 180 MeV to achieve the maximum possible dose rate. Results: Our findings indicate a strong linear relationship between protoacoustic signal amplitudes and delivered doses (R2 = 0.9997), with a consistent fit across different dose rates. The technique successfully provided 3D renderings of Bragg peaks at FLASH rates, validated through absolute Gamma index values. Conclusions: The protoacoustic system demonstrates effectiveness in 3D visualization and tracking of the Bragg peak during FLASH proton therapy, representing a notable advancement in proton therapy quality assurance. This method promises enhancements in protoacoustic image guidance and real‐time dosimetry, paving the way for more accurate and effective treatments in ultra‐high dose rate therapy environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Huntington’s disease (HD) is a rare neurodegenerative disorder caused by an expansion of the CAG trinucleotide repeat in the huntingtin gene which encodes the mutant huntingtin protein (mHTT) that is associated with HD-related neuropathophysiology. Noninvasive visualization of mHTT aggregates in the brain, with positron emission tomography (PET), will allow to reliably evaluate the efficacy of therapeutic interventions in HD. This study aimed to assess the radiation burden of [18F]CHDI-650, a novel fluorinated mHTT radioligand, in humans based on both in vivo and ex vivo biodistribution in mice and subsequent determination of dosimetry for dosing in humans. Results Wild-type male and female CD-1 Swiss mice (n = 15/sex) were used to assess in vivo PET imaging-based and ex vivo biodistribution-based tracer distribution of [18F]CHDI-650 at 30-, 60-, 120-, 240- and 360-min post-injection. Three-dimensional volumes of interest of the organs were drawn on the co-registered PET/CT image and organs were collected after dissection. Organ radioactivity levels were determined using both modalities. The residence time was calculated and extrapolated to human phantoms. The absorbed and effective doses were computed with OLINDA/EXM 2.2 and IDAC-Dose2.1. Ex vivo and PET-imaging biodistribution of [18F]CHDI-650 showed rapid washout after 30 min in most of the organs with the highest uptake in the gallbladder and urine in mice. Extrapolation of the data to human phantoms with OLINDA showed a total mean in vivo based effective dose of 21.7 μSv/MBq with the highest equivalent organ dose in the urinary bladder wall (4.52 μSv/MBq). The total mean ex vivo based effective dose was calculated to be 20.6 μSv/MBq. The highest equivalent organ dose ex vivo in the urinary bladder wall was estimated to be 4.22 μSv/MBq. The predicted exposure in humans using IDAC-Dose correlated well to those obtained with OLINDA for both in vivo and ex vivo measurements (r = 0.9320 and r = 0.9368, respectively). Conclusions Dosimetry analysis indicated absorbed and effective doses of [18F]CHDI-650 are well below the recommended limits, suggesting that the radioligand is suitable for clinical assessment. Based on the highest effective dose estimates, an injection of 370 MBq in humans would result in a radiation dose of 8.03 mSv.

The use of Al2O3:C-based optically stimulated luminescent dosimeters (OSLDs) in diagnostic X-ray is a challenge because of their energy dependence (ED) and variability of element sensitivity factors (ESFs). This study aims to develop a method to determine ED and ESFs of Landauer nanoDot™ OSLDs for clinical X-ray and investigate the uncertainties associated with ESF and ED correction factors. An area of 2 × 2 cm2 at the central axis of the X-ray field was used to establish the ESFs. A total of 80 OSLDs were categorized into "controlled" (n = 40) and "less-controlled" groups (n = 40). The ESFs of the OSLDs were determined using an 80 kVp X-ray beam quality in free-air geometry. The OSLDs were cross-calibrated with an ion chamber to establish the average calibration coefficient and ESFs. The OSLDs were then irradiated at tube potentials ranging from 50 to 150 kVp to determine their ED. The uniformity of the X-ray field was ± 1.5% at 100 cm source-to-surface distance. The batch homogeneities of user-defined ESFs were 2.4% and 8.7% for controlled and less-controlled OSLDs, respectively. The ED of OSLDs ranged from 1.125 to 0.812 as tube potential increased from 50 kVp to 150 kVp. The total uncertainty of OSLDs, without ED correction, could be as high as 16%. After applying ESF and ED correction, the total uncertainties were reduced to 6.3% in controlled OLSDs and 11.6% in less-controlled ones. OSLDs corrected with user-defined ESF and ED can reduce the uncertainty of dose measurements in diagnostic X-rays, particularly in managing less-controlled OSLDs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: While careful planning and pre‐treatment checks are performed to ensure patient safety during external beam radiation therapy (EBRT), inevitable daily variations mean that in vivo dosimetry (IVD) is the only way to attain the true delivered dose. Several countries outside the US require daily IVD for quality assurance. However, elsewhere, the manual labor and time considerations of traditional in vivo dosimeters may be preventing frequent use of IVD in the clinic. Purpose: This study expands upon previous research using plastic scintillator discs for optical dosimetry for electron therapy treatments. We present the characterization of scintillator discs for in vivo x‐ray dosimetry and describe additional considerations due to geometric complexities. Methods: Plastic scintillator discs were coated with reflective white paint on all sides but the front surface. An anti‐reflective, matte coating was applied to the transparent face to minimize specular reflection. A time‐gated iCMOS camera imaged the discs under various irradiation conditions. In post‐processing, background‐subtracted images of the scintillators were fit with Gaussian‐convolved ellipses to extract several parameters, including integral output, and observation angle. Results: Dose linearity and x‐ray energy independence were observed, consistent with ideal characteristics for a dosimeter. Dose measurements exhibited less than 5% variation for incident beam angles between 0° and 75° at the anterior surface and 0–60∘$^\circ $ at the posterior surface for exit beam dosimetry. Varying the angle between the disc surface and the camera lens did not impact the integral output for the same dose up to 55°. Past this point, up to 75°, there is a sharp falloff in response; however, a correction can be used based on the detected width of the disc. The reproducibility of the integral output for a single disc is 2%, and combined with variations from the gantry angle, we report the accuracy of the proposed scintillator disc dosimeters as ±5.4%. Conclusions: Plastic scintillator discs have characteristics that are well‐suited for in vivo optical dosimetry for x‐ray radiotherapy treatments. Unlike typical point dosimeters, there is no inherent readout time delay, and an optical recording of the measurement is saved after treatment for future reference. While several factors influence the integral output for the same dose, they have been quantified here and may be corrected in post‐processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Applying ultra‐high dose rates to radiation therapy, otherwise known as FLASH, has been shown to be just as effective while sparing more normal tissue compared to conventional radiation therapy. However, there is a need for a dosimeter that is able to detect such high instantaneous dose, particularly in vivo. To fulfill this need, protoacoustics is introduced, which is an in vivo range verification method with submillimeter accuracy. Purpose: The purpose of this work is to demonstrate the feasibility of using protoacoustics as a method of in vivo real‐time monitoring during FLASH proton therapy and investigating the resulting protoacoustic signal when dose per pulse and pulsewidth are varied through multiple simulation studies. Methods: The dose distribution of a proton pencil beam was calculated through a Monte Carlo toolbox, TOPAS. Next, the k‐Wave toolbox in MATLAB was used for performing protoacoustic simulations, where the initial proton dose deposition was inputted to model acoustic propagations, which were also used for reconstructions. Simulations involving the manipulation of the dose per pulse and pulsewidth were performed, and the temporal and spatial resolution for protoacoustic reconstructions were investigated as well. A 3D reconstruction was performed with a multiple beam spot profile to investigate the spatial resolution as well as determine the feasibility of 3D imaging with protoacoustics. Results: Our results showed consistent linearity in the increasing dose‐per‐pulse, even up to rates considered for FLASH. The simulations and reconstructions were performed for a range of pulsewidths from 0.1 to 10 μs. The results show the characteristics of the proton beam after convolving the protoacoustic signal with the varying pulsewidths. 3D reconstruction was successfully performed with each beam being distinguishable using an 8 cm × 8 cm planar array. These simulation results show that measurements using protoacoustics has the potential for in vivo dosimetry in FLASH therapy during patient treatments in real time. Conclusion: Through this simulation study, the use of protoacoustics in FLASH therapy was verified and explored through observations of varying parameters, such as the dose per pulse and pulsewidth. 2D and 3D reconstructions were also completed. This study shows the significance of using protoacoustics and provides necessary information, which can further be explored in clinical settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To use quantities measurable during in vivo dosimetry to build unique channel identifiers, that enable detection of brachytherapy errors. Treatment plan of 360 patients with prostate cancer who underwent high-dose-rate brachytherapy (range, 16–25 catheters; mean, 17) were used. A single point virtual dosimeter was placed at multiple positions within the treatment geometry, and the source-dosimeter distance and dwell time were determined for each dwell position in each catheter. These values were compared across all catheters, dwell position by dwell position, simulating a treatment delivery. A catheter was considered uniquely identified if, for a given dwell position, no other catheters had the same measured values. The minimum number of dwell positions needed to identify a specific catheter and the optimal dosimeter location uniquely were determined. The radial (r) and vertical (z) dimensions of the source-dosimeter distance were also examined for their utility in discriminating catheters. Using a virtual dosimeter with no uncertainties, all catheters were identified in 359 of the 360 cases with 9 dwell position measurements. When only the dwell time were measured, all catheters were uniquely identified after 1 dwell position. With a 2-mm spatial accuracy (r,z), all catheters were identified in 94% of the plans. Simultaneous measurement of source-dosimeter distance and dwell time ensured full catheter identification in all plans ranging from 2 to 6 dwell positions. The number of dwell positions needed to uniquely identify all catheters was lower when the distance from the implant center was higher. The most efficient fingerprinting approach involved combining source-dosimeter distance (i.e., source tracking) and dwell time. The further the dosimeter is placed from the center of the implant the better it can uniquely identify catheters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

(1) Background: High dose gradients and manual steps in brachytherapy treatment procedures can lead to dose errors which make the use of in vivo dosimetry (IVD) highly recommended for verifying brachytherapy treatments. A new procedure was presented to obtain a calibration factor which allows fast and robust calibration of plastic scintillation detector (PSD) probes for the geometry of a compact phantom using Monte Carlo simulations. Additionally, characterization of PSD energy, angular, and temperature dependences was performed. (2) Methods: PENELOPE/PenEasy code was used to obtain the calibration factor. To characterize the energy dependence of the PSD, the signal was measured at different radial and transversal distances. The sensitivity to the angular position was characterized in axial and azimuthal planes. (3) Results: The calibration factor obtained allows for an absorbed dose to water determination in full scatter conditions from ionization measured in a mini polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) phantom. The energy dependence of the PSD along the radial distances obtained was (2.3 ± 2.1)% (k = 1). The azimuthal angular dependence measured was (2.6 ± 3.4)% (k = 1). The PSD response decreased by (0.19 ± 0.02)%/°C with increasing detector probe temperature. (4) Conclusions: The energy, angular, and temperature dependence of a PSD is compatible with IVD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The paper presents the clinical experience of commissioning and the validation method of a commercial quality control system for radiation therapy plans based on transit dosimetry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Radiation dosimetry is essential for radiation therapy (RT) to ensure that radiation dose is accurately delivered to the tumor. Despite its wide use in clinical intervention, the delivered radiation dose can only be planned and verified via simulation. This makes precision radiotherapy challenging while in‐line verification of the delivered dose is still absent in the clinic. X‐ray‐induced acoustic computed tomography (XACT) has recently been proposed as an imaging tool for in vivo dosimetry. Purpose: Most of the XACT studies focus on localizing the radiation beam. However, it has not been studied for its potential for quantitative dosimetry. The aim of this study was to investigate the feasibility of using XACT for quantitative in vivo dose reconstruction during radiotherapy. Methods: Varian Eclipse system was used to generate simulated uniform and wedged 3D radiation field with a size of 4 cm ×$ \times \ $4 cm. In order to use XACT for quantitative dosimetry measurements, we have deconvoluted the effects of both the x‐ray pulse shape and the finite frequency response of the ultrasound detector. We developed a model‐based image reconstruction algorithm to quantify radiation dose in vivo using XACT imaging, and universal back‐projection (UBP) reconstruction is used as comparison. The reconstructed dose was calibrated before comparing it to the percent depth dose (PDD) profile. Structural similarity index matrix (SSIM) and root mean squared error (RMSE) are used for numeric evaluation. Experimental signals were acquired from 4 cm ×$ \times \ $4 cm radiation field created by Linear Accelerator (LINAC) at depths of 6, 8, and 10 cm beneath the water surface. The acquired signals were processed before reconstruction to achieve accurate results. Results: Applying model‐based reconstruction algorithm with non‐negative constraints successfully reconstructed accurate radiation dose in 3D simulation study. The reconstructed dose matches well with the PDD profile after calibration in experiments. The SSIMs between the model‐based reconstructions and initial doses are over 85%, and the RMSEs of model‐based reconstructions are eight times lower than the UBP reconstructions. We have also shown that XACT images can be displayed as pseudo‐color maps of acoustic intensity, which correspond to different radiation doses in the clinic. Conclusion: Our results show that the XACT imaging by model‐based reconstruction algorithm is considerably more accurate than the dose reconstructed by UBP algorithm. With proper calibration, XACT is potentially applicable to the clinic for quantitative in vivo dosimetry across a wide range of radiation modalities. In addition, XACT's capability of real‐time, volumetric dose imaging seems well‐suited for the emerging field of ultrahigh dose rate "FLASH" radiotherapy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In vivo dosimetry (IVD) in a commonly used liver cancer treatment of selective internal radiation therapy (SIRT) has been done based on the post-treatment image-based dosimetry approach. Real-time IVD is necessary to verify the dose delivery and detect errors during the treatment for better patient outcomes. This study aims to develop a fibre optic dosimeter (FOD) for in vivo real-time dose rate measurement during internal beta radiation therapy, e.g., SIRT. A ruby fibre optic probe was prepared and studied the radioluminescence (RL) characteristics, including its major challenge of stem effect arising from Cherenkov radiation and luminescence from the irradiated fibre. The stem signal was suppressed adequately using the stem removal technique of optical filtering, and only 2.3 ± 1.1% stem signal was contributed to the measured RL signal. A linear dose rate response was observed during the exposure of the ruby probe to varying dose rates using a 6 MeV electron beam and a positron-emitting radionuclide fluorine-18. The ruby exhibited a temporally non-constant RL signal, which increased the RL signal by 0.84 ± 0.29 counts/sec2 during the irradiation of the maximum dose rate used in this study of 9 Gy/min for 2 min. The ability of ruby FOD to measure the absolute dose rate with sufficient stem effect suppression and the linear RL dose rate response indicates its suitability for real-time IVD during internal beta radiation therapy. Future work will investigate the time-dependent RL characteristic of ruby and validate post-treatment image-based dosimetry using ruby-based FOD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To assess the planned dose, in vivo dosimetry, acute skin toxicity, pain, and distress using Thermoplastic Elastomer (TPE) bolus for postmastectomy radiotherapy (PMRT). Material and methods: Thirty-two PMRT patients with TPE bolus (17 patients for 25 fractions, 15 patients for the first 20 fractions) were selected for the study. The acute skin toxicity, pain, and psychological distress were assessed from the first treatment week to the fourth week after the end of treatment. At the first treatment, the MOSFET was used in vivo dosimetry measurement. Results: In vivo dosimetry with the bolus, the dose deviation ranged from −6.22% to −1.56% for 5 points. The presence of grade 1 and 2 skin toxicity reached its peak (70.0% and 13.3%) in the sixth week. Two patients (6.6%) with 25 fractions bolus experienced moist desquamation in the fifth and seventh week, with pain score 2 and 3, and interruptions of 3 and 5 days, respectively. The incidence of pain score 1, 2, and 3 peaked in the fifth (33.3%), fourth (33.3%), and seventh (10.0%) week. No patients experienced grade 3 skin toxicity and severe pain. One patient had significant anxiety, and two patients had significant depression. Conclusion: The TPE bolus can accurately fit skin and improve the surface dose to more than 90%. Twenty fractions with TPE bolus had similar skin toxicity and pain to those without bolus and did not increase patients' distress and clinical workload, compared with the literature's data, which is an alternative to the 3D printing bolus for PMRT.

As cone‐beam computed tomography (CBCT) has become the localization method for a majority of cases, the indications for diode‐based confirmation of accurate patient set‐up and treatment are now limited and must be balanced between proper resource allocation and optimizing efficiency without compromising safety. We undertook a de‐implementation quality improvement project to discontinue routine diode use in non‐intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) cases in favor of tailored selection of scenarios where diodes may be useful. After analysis of safety reports from the last 5 years, literature review, and stakeholder discussions, our safety and quality (SAQ) committee introduced a recommendation to limit diode use to specific scenarios in which in vivo verification may add value to standard quality assurance (QA) processes. To assess changes in patterns of use, we reviewed diode use by clinical indication 4 months prior and after the implementation of the revised policy, which includes use of diodes for: 3D conformal photon fields set up without CBCT; total body irradiation (TBI); electron beams; cardiac devices within 10 cm of the treatment field; and unique scenarios on a case‐by‐case basis. We identified 4459 prescriptions and 1038 unique instances of diode use across five clinical sites from 5/2021 to 1/2022. After implementation of the revised policy, we observed an overall decrease in diode use from 32% to 13.2%, with a precipitous drop in 3D cases utilizing CBCT (from 23.2% to 4%), while maintaining diode utilization in the 5 selected scenarios including 100% of TBI and electron cases. By identifying specific indications for diode use and creating a user‐friendly platform for case selection, we have successfully de‐implemented routine diode use in favor of a selective process that identifies cases where the diode is important for patient safety. In doing so, we have streamlined patient care and decreased cost without compromising patient safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the study was to calibrate and commission optically-stimulated luminescence dosimeters (OSLDs) for in vivo measurements in contact-based 192Ir treatments for superficial high dose rate (HDR) brachytherapy in place of metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs). Dose linearity and dose rate dependence were tested by varying source-to-OSLD distance and dwell time. Angular dependence was measured using a solid water phantom setup for OSLD rotation. A group of OSLDs were readout 34 consecutive times to test readout depletion while OSLDs were optically annealed using a mercury lamp for 34.7 h. End-to-end tests were performed using a Freiburg flap and Valencia applicator. OSLD measurements were compared to MOSFETs and treatment planning system (TPS) doses. OSLD response was supralinear for doses above 275 cGy. They were found to be independent of dose rate and dependent on the incident angle in edge-on scenarios. OSLDs exhibited minimal readout depletion and were successfully annealed after 24 h of illumination. Freiburg flap measurements agreed well with the TPS. For the Valencia, OSLDs showed to be the more accurate system over MOSFETs, with a maximum disagreement with the TPS being 0.09%. As such, OSLDs can successfully be used in place of MOSFETs for in vivo dosimetry for superficial HDR brachytherapy.

Introduction: This research is a preliminary study of the development of Artificial Intelligence (AI) as a conversion tool from the pixel value of Cine a-Si 1000 Electronic Portal Imaging Device (EPID) images to dose. It also investigates the relationship between the Monitor Unit (MU), dose rate, number of frames, and beam profile of Electronic Portal Imaging Device (EPID) images to facilitate further mathematical correction that must be added to create accurate dosimetry by Cine EPID images.Material and Methods: Homogeneous and inhomogeneous phantom was irradiated in a Linear Accelerator (Linac) 6 MV with different techniques, field size, and phantom thickness. The Cine a-Si 1000 EPID images were taken and compared to dose distribution data derived from the Eclipse treatment planning system (TPS) at Source Axis Distance 100 cm or isocenter field. The AI model training process begins with the augmentation of EPID and TPS images from homogeneous phantom so that 1152 images are obtained. These images are then split randomly into training and testing data 7:3, and validation is done using gamma index 3%/3mm.Results: An AI model based on Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) with 6 layers has been successfully created that can convert EPID pixel values into dose distribution without any mathematical correction. The best results from validation with a gamma index of 3%/3mm compared to TPS calculations reached 92.40% ±28.14%.Conclusion: An AI model has been successfully created that can convert EPID pixel values into dose distribution but need improvement by considering the characteristics contained in the EPID image and the number of datasets.

Surface brachytherapy (BT) lacks standard quality assurance (QA) protocols. Commercially available treatment planning systems (TPSs) are based on a dose calculation formalism that assumes the patient is made of water, resulting in potential deviations between planned and delivered doses. Here, a method for treatment plan verification for skin surface BT is reported. Chips of thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) were used for dose point measurements. High-dose-rate treatments were simulated and delivered through a custom-flap applicator provided with four fixed catheters to guide the Iridium-192 (Ir-192) source by way of a remote afterloading system. A flat water-equivalent phantom was used to simulate patient skin. Elekta TPS Oncentra Brachy was used for planning. TLDs were calibrated to Ir-192 through an indirect method of linear interpolation between calibration factors (CFs) measured for 250 kV X-rays, Cesium-137, and Cobalt-60. Subsequently, plans were designed and delivered to test the reproducibility of the irradiation set-up and to make comparisons between planned and delivered dose. The obtained CF for Ir-192 was (4.96 ± 0.25) μC/Gy. Deviations between measured and TPS calculated doses for multi-catheter treatment configuration ranged from −8.4% to 13.3% with an average of 0.6%. TLDs could be included in clinical practice for QA in skin BT with a customized flap applicator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE To validate the feasibility of electronic portal imaging device (EPID)- based in vivo dosimetry system for the verification of small animal radiation research METHODS The workflow can be divided into three steps. In the first part, external body of the rat phantom was modeled based on the computed tomography (CT) dataset of a real rat previously scanned for another radiobiological experiment and the structure set was exported to 3D Slicer program to convert DICOM file to. stl file format. Tissue-equivalent rat phantom was, then, printed using Makerbot Replicator Z18 3D-printer. In the second part, treatment plans were created for different anatomical sites including whole brain and total lung irradiation using Elekta Versa HD linear accelerator. In the last part, measurements were performed with EPID-based 3D in vivo dosimetry system. During the analysis, 3D γ analysis method was used and γ evaluation criteria were set to 3 mm distance-to-agreement and 3% dose differences for local dose. RESULTS According to our analysis, EPID measurement for each modality and anatomical site met the protocol value except for % γ ≤ 1 and γ mean values for total lung irradiation, but both of these parameters met the proposed minor variation criteria. CONCLUSION Implementation of EPID-based 3D in vivo dosimetry for preclinical radiation research with small animals seems to be feasible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Plastic scintillators have been used as radiation detectors for the past few years, as they are water-equivalent and independent of the dose, dose rate, and angle of incidence. In addition, they are also independent of the presence of a magnetic field and could be used for in vivo dosimetry in an MR-Linac. With the advent of a new commercial scintillation detector, Blue Physics Model 10,its characterization has been performed on an MR-Linac with a view to future applications. Purpose: To perform the dosimetric characterization and study potential applications of a novel commercial plastic scintillation detector in a MR-Linac. Methods: Scintillation detector description, calibration procedure, short-term repeatability, dose-response linearity, dose-rate dependence, angular dependence, and temperature dependence have been studied. Percent-depth-dose (PDD) and beam profiles were measured for small fields and a standard field, as well as output factors, for comparison with other PTW detectors: a diamond diode and PinPoint and Semiflex 3D ionization chambers. The suitability of the plastic scintillator for in vivo dosimetry in a magnetic field has also been studied measuring the dose to a point in an anthropomorphic phantom while acquiring MR imaging. This measured dose was compared with that calculated with Monaco planning system and with that measured with a PTW Semiflex 3D chamber, the latter without acquiring MR images. Results: Short-term repeatability presented negligible variations (<0.4%) for 100 and 20 MU. Similar results were obtained for dose-response linearity and dose-rate dependence. A small angular dependence was determined, while the scintillator resulted practically independent of the temperature. PDDs showed excellent agreement except in the build-up region, and calculated penumbras with the profiles given by the scintillator were between the ones obtained with the diamond detector and the PinPoint ionization chamber. Measured OF with the scintillator were the highest between all detectors, 1.26% higher than the value obtained with the microdiamond for the smallest field measured, 0.5 × 0.5 cm2. Finally, the total dose to a point measured with the scintillator was 0.51% higher compared to that calculated by the planning system. Conclusion: The Blue Physics model 10 scintillation system showed excellent dosimetric characteristics. Its response independent of the temperature and the presence of a magnetic field make it suitable for in vivo dosimetry in an MR-Linac while acquiring MR images, which could solve the impossibility of performing a dosimetric QA for each adapted plan. Furthermore, its temporal resolution allows independent radiation pulses to be measured and visualized, which could be used in future applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The setup of lung shield (LS) in total body irradiation (TBI) with the computed radiography (CR) system is a time‐consuming task and has not been quantitatively evaluated. The TBI mobile imager (TBI‐MI) can solve this problem through real‐time monitoring. Therefore, this study aimed to perform commissioning and performance evaluation of TBI‐MI to promote its use in clinical practice. Methods: The source‐axis distance in TBI treatment, TBI‐MI (CNERGY TBI, Cablon Medical B.V.), and the LS position were set to 400, 450, and 358 cm, respectively. The evaluation items were as follows: accuracy of image scaling and measured displacement error of LS, image quality (linearity, signal‐to‐noise ratio, and modulation transfer function) using an EPID QC phantom, optimal thresholding to detect intra‐fractional motion in the alert function, and the scatter radiation dose from TBI‐MI. Results: The accuracy of image scaling and the difference in measured displacement of the LS was <4 mm in any displacements and directions. The image quality of TBI imager was slightly inferior to the CR image but was visually acceptable in clinical practice. The signal‐to‐noise ratio was improved at high dose rate. The optimal thresholding value to detect a 10‐mm body displacement was determined to be approximately 5.0%. The maximum fraction of scattering radiation to irradiated dose was 1.7% at patient surface. Conclusion: MI‐TBI can quantitatively evaluate LS displacement with acceptable image quality. Furthermore, real‐time monitoring with alert function to detect intrafraction patient displacement can contribute to safe TBI treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Even though High Dose Rate (HDR) brachytherapy has good treatment outcomes in different treatment sites, treatment verification is far from widely implemented because of a lack of easily available solutions. Previously it has been shown that an imaging panel (IP) near the patient can be used to determine treatment parameters such as the dwell time and source positions in a single material pelvic phantom. In this study we will use a heterogeneous head phantom to test this IP approach, and simulate common treatment errors to assess the sensitivity and specificity of the error-detecting capabilities of the IP. A heterogeneous head-phantom consisting of soft tissue and bone equivalent materials was 3D-printed to simulate a base of tongue treatment. An High Dose Rate treatment plan with 3 different catheters was used to simulate a treatment delivery, using dwell times ranging from 0.3 s to 4 s and inter-dwell distances of 2 mm. The IP was used to measure dwell times, positions and detect simulated errors. Measured dwell times and positions were used to calculate the delivered dose. Dwell times could be determined within 0.1 s. Source positions were measured with submillimeter accuracy in the plane of the IP, and average distance accuracy of 1.7 mm in three dimensions. All simulated treatment errors (catheter swap, catheter shift, afterloader errors) were detected. Dose calculations show slightly different distributions with the measured dwell positions and dwell times (gamma pass rate for 1 mm/1% of 96.5%). Using an IP, it was possible to verify the treatment in a realistic heterogeneous phantom and detect certain treatment errors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This prospective study sought to evaluate potential savings of radiation dose to medical staff using real‐time dosimetry coupled with visual radiation dose feedback during angiographic interventions. For this purpose, we analyzed a total of 214 angiographic examinations that consisted of chemoembolizations and several other types of therapeutic interventions. The Unfors RaySafe i2 dosimeter was worn by the interventionalist at chest height over the lead protection. A total of 110 interventions were performed with real‐time radiation dosimetry allowing the interventionalist to react upon higher x‐ray exposure and 104 examinations served as the comparative group without real‐time radiation monitoring. By using the real‐time display during interventions, the overall mean operator radiation dose decreased from 3.67 (IQR, 0.95–23.01) to 2.36 μSv (IQR, 0.52–12.66) (−36%; p = 0.032) at simultaneously reduced operator exposure time by 4.5 min (p = 0.071). Dividing interventions into chemoembolizations and other types of therapeutic interventions, radiation dose decreased from 1.31 (IQR, 0.46‐3.62) to 0.95 μSv (IQR, 0.53‐3.11) and from 24.39 (IQR, 12.14‐63.0) to 10.37 μSv (IQR, 0.85‐36.84), respectively, using live‐screen dosimetry (p ≤ 0.005). Radiation dose reductions were also observed for the participating assistants, indicating that they could also benefit from real‐time visual feedback dosimetry during interventions (−30%; p = 0.039). Integration of real‐time dosimetry into clinical processes might be useful in reducing occupational radiation exposure time during angiographic interventions. The real‐time visual feedback raised the awareness of interventionalists and their assistants to the potential danger of prolonged radiation exposure leading to the adoption of radiation‐sparing practices. Therefore, it might create a safer environment for the medical staff by keeping the applied radiation exposure as low as possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and purpose: In magnetic resonance guided online adaptive radiotherapy, the patient model used for plan adaptation and dose calculation is created online under stringent time constraints. This study investigated the ability of in vivo portal dosimetry to detect deviations between the online patient model used for plan adaptation and the actual anatomy of the patient during delivery. Materials and methods: Portal images acquired during treatment were used to reconstruct the delivered dose corresponding to online adapted plans of 42 prostate and 20 rectal cancer patients. The reconstructed dose distributions were compared with the dose distributions calculated online by the treatment planning system by γ-analysis and by the difference in median dose to the high-dose volume. Results: Out of 245 prostate and 145 rectal cancer adapted plans, deviations were detected in 5 prostate and in 17 rectal adapted plans corresponding to 3 prostate and 6 rectal patients, respectively. For all but one of the alerts, deviations were explained due to discrepancies observed between the patient model used for plan adaptation and online magnetic resonance images. A single workflow incident in which the supporting arm of the anterior receive coil was accidentally moved in the treatment field was also detected. Conclusion: There is need for independent end-to-end checks in magnetic resonance guided online adaptive workflows including the verification of the online patient model. In vivo portal dosimetry can be used for such purpose as it can detect both patient related deviations and workflow incidents.

Background and purpose: Real-time portal dosimetry compares measured images with predicted images to detect delivery errors as the radiotherapy treatment proceeds. This work aimed to investigate the performance of a recurrent neural network for processing image metrics so as to detect delivery errors as early as possible in the treatment. Materials and methods: Volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT) plans of six prostate patients were used to generate sequences of predicted portal images. Errors were introduced into the treatment plans and the modified plans were delivered to a water-equivalent phantom. Four different metrics were used to detect errors. These metrics were applied to a threshold-based method to detect the errors as soon as possible during the delivery, and also to a recurrent neural network consisting of four layers. A leave-two-out approach was used to set thresholds and train the neural network then test the resulting systems. Results: When using a combination of metrics in conjunction with optimal thresholds, the median segment index at which the errors were detected was 107 out of 180. When using the neural network, the median segment index for error detection was 66 out of 180, with no false positives. The neural network reduced the rate of false negative results from 0.36 to 0.24. Conclusions: The recurrent neural network allowed the detection of errors around 30% earlier than when using conventional threshold techniques. By appropriate training of the network, false positive alerts could be prevented, thereby avoiding unnecessary disruption to the patient workflow.

Purpose: A real‐time solar cell based in vivo dosimetry system (SC‐IVD) was developed using a flexible thin film solar cell and scintillating powder. The present study evaluated the clinical feasibility of the SC‐IVD in electron beam therapy. Methods: A thin film solar cell was coated with 100 mg of scintillating powder using an optical adhesive to enhance the sensitivity of the SC‐IVD. Calibration factors were obtained by dividing the dose, measured at a reference depth for 6–20 MeV electron beam energy, by the signal obtained using the SC‐IVD. Dosimetric characteristics of SC‐IVDs containing variable quantities of scintillating powder (0–500 mg) were evaluated, including energy, dose rate, and beam angle dependencies, as well as dose linearity. To determine the extent to which the SC‐IVD affected the dose to the medium, doses at R90 were compared depending on whether the SC‐IVD was on the surface. Finally, the accuracy of surface doses measured using the SC‐IVD was evaluated by comparison with surface doses measured using a Markus chamber. Results: Charge measured using the SC‐IVD increased linearly with dose and was within 1% of the average signal according to the dose rate. The signal generated by the SC‐IVD increased as the beam angle increased. The presence of the SC‐IVD on the surface of a phantom resulted in a 0.5%–2.2% reduction in dose at R90 for 6–20 MeV electron beams compared with the bare phantom. Surface doses measured using the SC‐IVD system and Markus chamber differed by less than 5%. Conclusions: The dosimetric characteristics of the SC‐IVD were evaluated in this study. The results showed that it accurately measured the surface dose without a significant difference of dose in the medium when compared with the Markus chamber. The flexibility of the SC‐IVD allows it to be attached to a patient's skin, enabling real‐time and cost‐effective measurement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To assess the planned dose, in vivo dosimetry, acute skin toxicity, pain, and distress using Thermoplastic Elastomer (TPE) bolus for postmastectomy radiotherapy (PMRT). Thirty-two PMRT patients with TPE bolus (17 patients for 25 fractions, 15 patients for the first 20 fractions) were selected for the study. The acute skin toxicity, pain, and psychological distress were assessed from the first treatment week to the fourth week after the end of treatment. At the first treatment, the MOSFET was used in vivo dosimetry measurement. In vivo dosimetry with the bolus, the dose deviation ranged from −6.22% to −1.56% for 5 points. The presence of grade 1 and 2 skin toxicity reached its peak (70.0% and 13.3%) in the sixth week. Two patients (6.6%) with 25 fractions bolus experienced moist desquamation in the fifth and seventh week, with pain score 2 and 3, and interruptions of 3 and 5 days, respectively. The incidence of pain score 1, 2, and 3 peaked in the fifth (33.3%), fourth (33.3%), and seventh (10.0%) week. No patients experienced grade 3 skin toxicity and severe pain. One patient had significant anxiety, and two patients had significant depression. The TPE bolus can accurately fit skin and improve the surface dose to more than 90%. Twenty fractions with TPE bolus had similar skin toxicity and pain to those without bolus and did not increase patients' distress and clinical workload, compared with the literature's data, which is an alternative to the 3D printing bolus for PMRT. • First reported the soft and self-viscosity TPE bolus in PMRT. • Evaluated the planning and in vivo dose in PMRT using TPE bolus. • TPE bolus had similar skin toxicity to those without bolus compared with the literature's data. • Using TPE bolus did not increase patients' psychological distress and clinical workload compared with the literature's data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work details the clinical pilot study methodology used at Wellington Blood and Cancer Centre (WBCC) before the clinical release of in vivo dosimetry (IVD) system EPIgray™ for head and neck (H&N) volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT) treatments. Clinical pilot studies make it possible to select appropriate, department-specific tolerance ranges for the treatment type and site under investigation. An IVD clinical pilot study of H&N VMAT treatments was conducted over 3 months at WBCC using EPIgray™ dose reconstruction software and included 12 patients and 32 individual treatment fractions. Statistical analysis of the dose deviations between the treatment planning system (TPS) dose and EPIgray™ reconstructed dose confirmed that a deviation tolerance range of ± 7.0% was an appropriate choice for H&N VMAT at WBCC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The aim of this work was to evaluate the SunCHECK PerFRACTION, the software for in vivo monitoring using EPID images. Materials/Methods: First, the PerFRACTION ability to detect errors was investigated simulating two situations: (1) variation of LINAC output and (2) variation of the phantom thickness. An ionization chamber was used as reference to measure the introduced dose variations. Both tests used EPID in integrated mode (absolute dose). Second, EPID measurements in integrated mode were carried out during an independent Brazilian governmental audit that provided four phantoms and TLDs. PerFRACTION calculated the absolute dose on EPID plane, and it compared with predicted calculated dose for every delivered plan. The dose deviations reported using PerFRACTION were compared with dose deviations reported by the independent audit. Third, an end‐to‐end test using a heterogeneous phantom was performed. A VMAT plan with EPID in cine mode was delivered. PerFRACTION calculated the mean dose on CBCT using EPID information and log files. The calculated doses at four different points were compared with ionization chambers measurements. Results: About the first test, the largest difference found was 1.2%. Considering the audit results, the variations detected by TLD measurements and by PerFRACTION dose calculation on EPID plane were close: 12 points had variations less than 2%, 2 points with variation between 2% and 3%, and 2 points with deviations greater than 3% (max 3.7%). The end‐to‐end tests using a heterogeneous phantom achieved dose deviation less than 1.0% in the water‐equivalent region. In the mimicking lung region, the deviations were higher (max 7.3%), but in accordance with what is expected for complex situations. Conclusion: The tests results indicate that PerFRACTION dose calculations in different situations have good agreement with standard measurements. Action levels were suggested for absolute dose on EPID plane as well as 3D dose calculation on CBCT using PerFRACTION. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. Adaptive radiation therapy (ART) could protect organs at risk (OARs) while maintain high dose coverage to targets. However, there is still a lack of efficient online patient quality assurance (QA) methods, which is an obstacle to large-scale adoption of ART. We aim to develop a clinically relevant online patient QA solution for ART using daily CT scans and EPID-based in vivo dosimetry. Approach. Ten patients with rectal cancer at our center were included. Patients’ daily CT scans and portal images were collected to generate reconstructed 3D dose distributions. Contours of targets and OARs were recontoured on these daily CT scans by a clinician or an auto-segmentation algorithm, then dose-volume indices were calculated, and the percent deviation of these indices to their original plans were determined. This deviation was regarded as the metric for clinically relevant patient QA. The tolerance level was obtained using a 95% confidence interval of the QA metric distribution. These deviations could be further divided into anatomically relevant or delivery relevant indicators for error source analysis. Finally, our QA solution was validated on an additional six clinical patients. Main results. In rectal cancer, the 95% confidence intervals of the QA metric for PTV Î" D 95 (%) were [âˆ'3.11%, 2.35%], and for PTV Î" D 2 (%) were [âˆ'0.78%, 3.23%]. In validation, 68% for PTV Î" D 95 (%), and 79% for PTV Î" D 2 (%) of the 28 fractions are within tolerances of the QA metrics. one patient’s dosimetric impact of anatomical variations during treatment were observed through the source of error analysis. Significance. The online patient QA solution using daily CT scans and EPID-based in vivo dosimetry is clinically feasible. Source of error analysis has the potential for distinguishing sources of error and guiding ART for future treatments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The aim of this study was to develop an algorithm that corrects the image of an electronic portal imaging device (EPID) of a linear accelerator so that it can be used for dosimetric purposes, such as in vivo dosimetry or quality assurance for photon radiotherapy. For that purpose, the impact of the field size, phantom thickness, and the varying spectral photon distribution within the irradiation field on the EPID image was investigated. Methods: The EPID measurements were verified using reference measurements with ionization chambers. Therefore, absolute dose measurements with an ionization chamber and relative dose measurements with a detector array were performed. An EPID calibration and correction algorithm was developed to convert the EPID image to a dose distribution. The algorithm was validated by irradiating inhomogeneous phantoms using square fields as well as irregular IMRT fields. Results: It was possible to correct the influence of the field size, phantom thickness on the EPID signal as well as the homogenization of the image profile by several correction factors within 0.6%. A gamma index analysis (3%, 3 mm) of IMRT fields showed a pass rate of above 99%, when comparing to the planning system. Conclusion: The developed algorithm enables an online dose measurement with the EPID during the radiation treatment. The algorithm is characterized by a robust, non‐iterative, and thus real‐time capable procedure with little measuring effort and does not depend on system‐specific parameters. The EPID image is corrected by multiplying three independent correction factors. Therefore, it can easily be extent by further correction factors for other influencing variables, so it can be transferred to other linear accelerators and EPID configurations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Purpose: Total skin electron beam therapy (TSEBT) is an important skin-directed radiotherapeutic procedure done in the treatment of cutaneous T-cell lymphomas, namely, mycosis fungoides (MF). This procedure is usually done at larger source-to-surface distances with the patient standing on a rotatory platform. As the patient has to stand in different positions without any rigid immobilization devices, there are chances that the total skin may not get uniformly irradiated which could lead to nonuniform dose distributions. Therefore, all the necessary arrangements should be made to evaluate the dose for different regions of the skin using suitable in vivo dosimeters at the radiotherapy centers offering these treatments. This study aimed to evaluate the consistency between the delivered and planned doses in vivo during TSEBT using Gafchromic EBT3 film dosimetry. Materials and Methods: The surface dose for the six MF patients treated for TSEBT at our hospital from 2018 to 2022 was measured and evaluated. 2 cm × 2 cm Gafchromic® EBT3 films were used to measure skin dose at reference body positions of clinical interest. All the patients were treated with the modified Stanford technique. The irradiated film strips were analyzed for the dose using the IMRT OmniPro software. The doses at respective positions were expressed as mean dose ± standard deviation and the deviation was calculated as the percentage of the prescribed dose. Results: One hundred and fifty-four Gafchromic® EBT3 film strips irradiated on six TSEBT patients showed a maximum dose variation of 2.00 ± 0.14 Gy, in the central body regions. The dose variation in the peripheral areas such as hands and ears was larger. A variation of 2 ± 0.32 Gy was observed on the hands and ears. The uniformity of the dose delivered to maximum body parts was within −7% and +16% for the peripheral areas like hands. The American Association of Physicists in Medicine recommends a dose uniformity of 8% and 4% in the vertical and horizontal patient plane for direct incident beam; however, for oblique incidences like in the modified Stanford technique, the dose variation is about 15%. Conclusion: In vivo dosimetry using Gafchromic EBT3 film dosimetry for TSEBT yields objective data to find the under or overdose regions. That can be useful to provide quality treatment, especially when treatments tend to be as complex as TSEBT.

The complexity of modern radiotherapy treatment pathways necessitate input from different professions to ensure treatment is delivered safely and as planned. In vivo dosimetry is one method of treatment verification providing the opportunity for both in-field verification or out-of-field measurements. It was the aim of this work to review the impact of an in vivo dosimetry programme with t.he view to justify resources and assist in developing a plan for equipment acquisition. Results of 310 (approximately 2 per 1000 treatment fractions) in vivo measurements were reviewed over a two-year time span. The in vivo dosimetry programme using thermoluminescence (TLD) chips was able to detect three significant treatment errors, amongst some 13 000 patients treated. These errors would likely to have been undetected through other quality assurance measures. Increasing demands in workload were found to be associated with commissioning of new equipment and techniques. A skilled operator with knowledge of TLD physics, treatment planning system (TPS) dose calculation algorithms and radiation transport proved to be essential for appropriate interpretation of TLD results particularly in complex radiation delivery scenarios. TLD continues to play a large role in patient safety and quality assurance at our institution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE In this study, it was aimed to evaluate the performance and reliability of 3-dimensional (3D) in vivo electronic portal imaging device (EPID)-based dosimetry in radiotherapy (RT) of patients with gynecological cancer. METHODS The dose distributions and in vivo dosimetry results of patients with endometrial (n=10) and cervical (n=10) cancer who underwent external pelvic RT in our department were analyzed retrospectively. The RT planning and 3D in vivo dosimetry data were obtained from the treatment planning system and the iViewDose® (Elekta, Crawley, UK) in vivo quality assurance system. In addition, patient-specific phantom measurements were carried out for each patient with the Alderson Rando phantom. The results were evaluated with 3D gamma analysis method using iViewDose® software. We obtained γmean, γ1%, and γ≤1% values for each patient with the analysis. Acceptance criteria for these parameters were taken as 0.7, 2.0, and 90%, respectively. RESULTS The phantom measurements showed that all treatment plans were applicable. All patients met the passing criteria for γmean, γ1%, and γ≤1%. The mean gamma passing rate was 95.1%±1.7 and 96.3%±2.9 for patients with endometrial and cervical cancer, respectively. CONCLUSION The EPID-based in vivo dosimetry seems to be usable in clinical routine in the treatment of gynecological cancers. However, field size is the most important limitation of in vivo EPID dosimetry in cases requiring extended field RT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Purpose: Total skin electron beam therapy (TSEBT) is an important skin‑directed radiotherapeutic procedure done in the treatment of cutaneous T‑cell lymphomas, namely, mycosis fungoides (MF). This procedure is usually done at larger source‑to‑surface distances with the patient standing on a rotatory platform. As the patient has to stand in different positions without any rigid immobilization devices, there are chances that the total skin may not get uniformly irradiated which could lead to nonuniform dose distributions. Therefore, all the necessary arrangements should be made to evaluate the dose for different regions of the skin using suitable in vivo dosimeters at the radiotherapy centers offering these treatments. This study aimed to evaluate the consistency between the delivered and planned doses in vivo during TSEBT using Gafchromic EBT3 film dosimetry. Materials and Methods: The surface dose for the six MF patients treated for TSEBT at our hospital from 2018 to 2022 was measured and evaluated. 2 cm × 2 cm Gafchromic® EBT3 films were used to measure skin dose at reference body positions of clinical interest. All the patients were treated with the modified Stanford technique. The irradiated film strips were analyzed for the dose using the IMRT OmniPro software. The doses at respective positions were expressed as mean dose ± standard deviation and the deviation was calculated as the percentage of the prescribed dose. Results: One hundred and fifty‑four Gafchromic® EBT3 film strips irradiated on six TSEBT patients showed a maximum dose variation of 2.00 ± 0.14 Gy, in the central body regions. The dose variation in the peripheral areas such as hands and ears was larger. A variation of 2 ± 0.32 Gy was observed on the hands and ears. The uniformity of the dose delivered to maximum body parts was within −7% and +16% for the peripheral areas like hands. The American Association of Physicists in Medicine recommends a dose uniformity of 8% and 4% in the vertical and horizontal patient plane for direct incident beam; however, for oblique incidences like in the modified Stanford technique, the dose variation is about 15%. Conclusion: In vivo dosimetry using Gafchromic EBT3 film dosimetry for TSEBT yields objective data to find the under or overdose regions. That can be useful to provide quality treatment, especially when treatments tend to be as complex as TSEBT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: This research is a preliminary study of the development of Artificial Intelligence (AI) as a conversion tool from the pixel value of Cine a-Si 1000 Electronic Portal Imaging Device (EPID) images to dose. It also investigates the relationship between the Monitor Unit (MU), dose rate, number of frames, and beam profile of Electronic Portal Imaging Device (EPID) images to facilitate further mathematical correction that must be added to create accurate dosimetry by Cine EPID images. Material and Methods: Homogeneous and inhomogeneous phantom was irradiated in a Linear Accelerator (Linac) 6 MV with different techniques, field size, and phantom thickness. The Cine a-Si 1000 EPID images were taken and compared to dose distribution data derived from the Eclipse treatment planning system (TPS) at Source Axis Distance 100 cm or isocenter field. The AI model training process begins with the augmentation of EPID and TPS images from homogeneous phantom so that 1152 images are obtained. These images are then split randomly into training and testing data 7:3, and validation is done using gamma index 3%/3mm. Results: An AI model based on Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) with 6 layers has been successfully created that can convert EPID pixel values into dose distribution without any mathematical correction. The best results from validation with a gamma index of 3%/3mm compared to TPS calculations reached 92.40% ±28.14%. Conclusion: An AI model has been successfully created that can convert EPID pixel values into dose distribution but need improvement by considering the characteristics contained in the EPID image and the number of datasets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Optically stimulated luminescence dosimetry is a relatively recent field of in-vivo dosimetry in clinical radiotherapy, developing over the last 20 years. As a pilot study, this paper presents a direct comparison between the sensitivity variance with use, stability of measurement and linearity of the current clinical standard Al2O3:C and a potential alternative, beryllium oxide. A set of ten optically stimulated luminescence dosimeters (OSLD), including five of each type, were used simultaneously and irradiated on a Versa HD linear accelerator. Having similar sensitivity, while Al2O3:C showed a relatively stable signal response from initial use, BeO was found to have a higher response to the same dose. However, BeO displayed a strong exponential decline from initial signal response following a model of R e s p o n s e BeO = (0.55 ± 0.05) e - 0.40 ± 0.05 x + (0.54 ± 0.01) , reaching stability after approximately 10 irradiation cycles. BeO was shown to have potentially higher accuracy than Al2O3:C, with less variation between individual doses. Both OSLD showed good linearity between 0.2–5.0 Gy. Between these bounds, Al2O3:C demonstrated a strong linear response following the trend D o s e A l 2 O 3 , g r o u p (a d j) = (1.00 ± 0.09) x - (0.02 ± 0.04) Gy , however beyond this showed deviation from linearity, resulting in a measured dose of 12.0 ± 0.2 Gy at 10.0 Gy dose delivery. BeO showed strong linearity across the full examined range of 0.2–10.0 Gy with following a model of D o s e B e O , i n d = (0.98 ± 0.01) x + (0.04 ± 0.01) Gy with a recorded dose at 10.0 Gy delivery as 9.9 ± 0.1 Gy. In conclusion, BeO does show large variance in sensitivity between individual OSLD and a considerable initial variance and decline in dose–response, however after pre-conditioning and individual normalisation to offset OSLD specific sensitivity BeO provides not only a viable alternative to Al2O3:C, but potentially provide higher accuracy, precision and reproducibility for in-vivo dosimetry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The complexity of modern radiotherapy treatment pathways necessitate input from different professions to ensure treatment is delivered safely and as planned. In vivo dosimetry is one method of treatment verification providing the opportunity for both in-field verification or out-of-field measurements. It was the aim of this work to review the impact of an in vivo dosimetry programme with t.he view to justify resources and assist in developing a plan for equipment acquisition. Results of 310 (approximately 2 per 1000 treatment fractions) in vivo measurements were reviewed over a two-year time span. The in vivo dosimetry programme using thermoluminescence (TLD) chips was able to detect three significant treatment errors, amongst some 13 000 patients treated. These errors would likely to have been undetected through other quality assurance measures. Increasing demands in workload were found to be associated with commissioning of new equipment and techniques. A skilled operator with knowledge of TLD physics, treatment planning system (TPS) dose calculation algorithms and radiation transport proved to be essential for appropriate interpretation of TLD results particularly in complex radiation delivery scenarios. TLD continues to play a large role in patient safety and quality assurance at our institution.

• SICA detectors allow real-time dose and dose rate monitoring during FLASH experiments. • Per-delivery data enable dose cohort regrouping and regression based on actual delivered dose. • High spatiotemporal resolution information is important to ensure FLASH experiments are robust to future dose rate definitions, especially for PBS proton irradiations. • Large cohorts of mice and long-term in vivo data are crucial for preclinical and clinical FLASH studies. To investigate quality assurance (QA) techniques for in vivo dosimetry and establish its routine uses for proton FLASH small animal experiments with a saturated monitor chamber. 227 mice were irradiated at FLASH or conventional (CONV) dose rates with a 250 MeV FLASH-capable proton beamline using pencil beam scanning to characterize the proton FLASH effect on abdominal irradiation and examining various endpoints. A 2D strip ionization chamber array (SICA) detector was positioned upstream of collimation and used for in vivo dose monitoring during irradiation. Before each irradiation series, SICA signal was correlated with the isocenter dose at each delivered dose rate. Dose, dose rate, and 2D dose distribution for each mouse were monitored with the SICA detector. Calibration curves between the upstream SICA detector signal and the delivered dose at isocenter had good linearity with minimal R2 values of 0.991 (FLASH) and 0.985 (CONV), and slopes were consistent for each modality. After reassigning mice, standard deviations were less than 1.85 % (FLASH) and 0.83 % (CONV) for all dose levels, with no individual subject dose falling outside a ± 3.6 % range of the designated dose. FLASH fields had a field-averaged dose rate of 79.0 ± 0.8 Gy/s and mean local average dose rate of 160.6 ± 3.0 Gy/s. In vivo dosimetry allowed for the accurate detection of variation between the delivered and the planned dose. In vivo dosimetry benefits FLASH experiments through enabling real-time dose and dose rate monitoring allowing mouse cohort regrouping when beam fluctuation causes delivered dose to vary from planned dose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

FLASH radiotherapy (FLASH‐RT) is an emerging ultra‐high dose (>40 Gy/s) delivery that promises to improve the therapeutic potential by limiting toxicities compared to conventional RT while maintaining similar tumor eradication efficacy. Image guidance is an essential component of modern RT that should be harnessed to meet the special emerging needs of FLASH‐RT and its associated high risks in planning and delivering of such ultra‐high doses in short period of times. Hence, this contribution will elaborate on the imaging requirements and possible solutions in the entire chain of FLASH‐RT treatment, from the planning, through the setup and delivery with online in vivo imaging and dosimetry, up to the assessment of biological mechanisms and treatment response. In patient setup and delivery, higher temporal sampling than in conventional RT should ensure that the short treatment is delivered precisely to the targeted region. Additionally, conventional imaging tools such as cone‐beam computed tomography will continue to play an important role in improving patient setup prior to delivery, while techniques based on magnetic resonance imaging or positron emission tomography may be extremely valuable for either linear accelerator (Linac) or particle FLASH therapy, to monitor and track anatomical changes during delivery. In either planning or assessing outcomes, quantitative functional imaging could supplement conventional imaging for more accurate utilization of the biological window of the FLASH effect, selecting for or verifying things such as tissue oxygen and existing or transient hypoxia on the relevant timescales of FLASH‐RT delivery. Perhaps most importantly at this time, these tools might help improve the understanding of the biological mechanisms of FLASH‐RT response in tumor and normal tissues. The high dose deposition of FLASH provides an opportunity to utilize pulse‐to‐pulse imaging tools such as Cherenkov or radiation acoustic emission imaging. These could provide individual pulse mapping or assessing the 3D dose delivery superficially or at tissue depth, respectively. In summary, the most promising components of modern RT should be used for safer application of FLASH‐RT, and new promising developments could be advanced to cope with its novel demands but also exploit new opportunities in connection with the unique nature of pulsed delivery at unprecedented dose rates, opening a new era of biological image guidance and ultrafast, pulse‐based in vivo dosimetry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

(1) Background: In brachytherapy, there are still many manual procedures that can cause adverse events which can be detected with in vivo dosimetry systems. Plastic scintillator dosimeters (PSD) have interesting properties to achieve this objective such as real-time reading, linearity, repeatability, and small size to fit inside brachytherapy catheters. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the performance of a PSD in postoperative endometrial brachytherapy in terms of source dwell time accuracy. (2) Methods: Measurements were carried out in a PMMA phantom to characterise the PSD. Patient measurements in 121 dwell positions were analysed to obtain the differences between planned and measured dwell times. (3) Results: The repeatability test showed a relative standard deviation below 1% for the measured dwell times. The relative standard deviation of the PSD sensitivity with accumulated absorbed dose was lower than 1.2%. The equipment operated linearly in total counts with respect to absorbed dose and also in count rate versus absorbed dose rate. The mean (standard deviation) of the absolute differences between planned and measured dwell times in patient treatments was 0.0 (0.2) seconds. (4) Conclusions: The PSD system is useful as a quality assurance tool for brachytherapy treatments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• 3D dose reconstruction based on in vivo dosimetry was performed for high-dose-rate prostate BT. • Maximum relative deviation in the clinical target volume D 90% was 5%. • In one fraction a 18% increase in bladder D 2cm 3 was observed and a maximum deviation of 15% in urethra dose. • 3D dose reconstruction can aid in determining the dosimetric impact of geometric variations in BT. In vivo dosimetry (IVD) can be used for source tracking (ST), i.e., estimating source positions, during brachytherapy. The aim of this study was to exploit IVD-based ST to perform 3D dose reconstruction for high-dose-rate prostate brachytherapy and to evaluate the robustness of the treatments against observed geometric variations. Twenty-three fractions of high-dose-rate prostate brachytherapy were analysed. The treatment planning was based on MRI. Time-resolved IVD was performed using a fibre-coupled scintillator. ST was retrospectively performed using the IVD measurements. The ST identified 2D positional shifts of each treatment catheter and thereby inferred updated source positions. For each fraction, the dose was recalculated based on the source-tracked catheter positions and compared with the original plan dose using differences in dose volume histogram indices. Of 352 treatment catheters, 344 had shifts of less than 5 mm. Shifts between 5 and 10 mm were observed for 3 catheters, and shifts greater than 10 mm for 2 catheters. The ST failed for 3 catheters. The maximum relative difference in clinical target volume (prostate + 3 mm isotropic margin) D 90% was 5%. In one fraction, the bladder D 2cm 3 dose increased by 18% (1.4 Gy) due to a single source position being inside the bladder rather than nearby as planned. The max increase in urethra dose was 1.5 Gy (15%). IVD-based 3D dose reconstruction for high-dose-rate prostate brachytherapy is feasible. The dosimetric impact of the observed catheter shifts was limited. Dose reconstruction can therefore aid in determining the dosimetric impact of geometric variations and errors in brachytherapy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to propose a technique for delivering accurate doses in an image-guided system by developing an experimental setup optimized for total lymphoid irradiation (TLI) in rat lung transplantation.Materials and MethodsIn this study, a position-controlled shielding system was developed, and the dose was quantitatively evaluated using a 3D rat phantom and Gafchromic EBT3 film. In addition, we made our own image-guided system that allows the position of the rat and the shielding system to be confirmed during TLI.ResultsAs a result of using the position-controlled shielding system, it was found that the doses to the head and lungs were reduced by 93.1 and 87.4%, respectively, of the prescribed doses. In addition, it was shown that the position of the shielding system can be easily confirmed by using the image guidance system.ConclusionA shielding apparatus that can control dose delivery according to the size of the rat can optimize the dose for TLI in rat lung transplantation.

Purpose: The purpose of this work is to evaluate the Hyperscint‐RP100 scintillation dosimetry research platform (Hyperscint‐RP100, Medscint Inc., Quebec, QC, Canada) designed for clinical quality assurance (QA) for use in in vivo dosimetry measurements. Methods: The pre‐clinical evaluation of the scintillator was performed using a Varian TrueBeam linear accelerator. Dependency on field size, depth, dose, dose rate, and temperature were evaluated in a water tank and compared to calibration data from commissioning and annual QA. Angularity was evaluated with a 3D printed phantom. The clinical evaluation was first performed in two cadaver dogs, and then in three companion animal dogs receiving radiation therapy for nasal tumors. A treatment planning CT scan was performed for cadavers and clinical patients. Prior to treatment, the probe was inserted into the radiation field. Radiation was then delivered and measured with the scintillator. For cadavers, the treatment was repeated after making an intentional shift in patient position to simulate a treatment error. Results: In the preclinical measurements the dose differed from annual measurements as follows: field size −0.77 to 0.43%, depth dose −0.36 to 1.14%, dose −0.54 to 2.93%, dose rate 0.3 to 3.6%, and angularity −1.18 to 0.01%. Temperature dependency required a correction factor of 0.11%/°C. In the two cadavers, the dose differed by −1.17 to 0.91%. The device correctly detected the treatment error when the heads were intentionally laterally shifted. In three canine clinical patients treated in multiple fractions, the detected dose ranged from 98.33 to 103.15%. Conclusion: Results of this new device are promising although more work is necessary to fully validate it for clinical dosimetry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction. COVID radiotherapy requires performance of all radiotherapy (RT) procedures during one site visit due to the infectious nature of the disease. The aim of the study was to develop methods of estimating the delivered dose based on electronic portal image device (EPID) signal during treatment. Material and methods. Electronic portal image device signal was measured as a function of the phantom dose. The dose in 14 COVID patients was estimated for two X6MV beams. Results. The method allows to estimate dose in phantom with uncertainty of 12%. In this case, a systematic error was reported. Therefore, coefficients for clinical data were calculated and used to determine the dose in patients. The mean difference between the dose calculated and the dose measured for the 14 patients was 1%, but the uncertainty of this method was estimated as ±6% Conclusions. The proposed method may be useful in clinical practice as in vivo method. However, due to high uncer- tainty, it should be dedicated to the detection of “big” errors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose/objective: In all treatment sites of our radiotherapy network, in vivo dosimetry (PerFRACTION™) was fully implemented in February 2018. We hypothesized that additional help with bladder and rectum preparation by home nursing would improve patients’ preparation and investigated if this could be assessed using in vivo dosimetry (IVD). Materials/methods: A retrospective study was conducted with a test group who received additional help with bladder and rectum preparation by home nurses and a control group who only received information on bladder and rectum preparation according to the standard protocol. Patients were treated with a 6 MV Volumetric Modulated Arc Therapy (VMAT) technique. Electronic portal imaging device (EPID)-based integrated transit dose images were acquired on the first 3 days of treatment and weekly thereafter or more if failed fractions (FF) occurred. Results were analyzed using a global gamma analysis with a threshold of 20%, tolerance of 5% (dose difference) and 5 mm (distance to agreement), and a passing level of 95%. Results: Data of 462 prostate patients was analyzed: 39 and 423 in a test and control group respectively with a comparable number of measurements (on average 8.0 (σ = 4.8) and 7.1 (σ = 4.5) respectively per treatment course). Of the FF, 39% and 31% were related to variations in bladder and rectum filling for the test and control group respectively. Subgroups were created based on the number of FF, no statistically significant differences were observed. Conclusion: Two dimensional EPID-based IVD successfully detected deviations due to variations in bladder and rectum filling, however it could not confirm the hypothesis.

Brachytherapy can deliver high doses to the target while sparing healthy tissues due to its steep dose gradient leading to excellent clinical outcome. Treatment accuracy depends on several manual steps making brachytherapy susceptible to operational mistakes. Currently, treatment delivery verification is not routinely available and has led, in some cases, to systematic errors going unnoticed for years. The brachytherapy community promoted developments in in vivo dosimetry (IVD) through research groups and small companies. Although very few of the systems have been used clinically, it was demonstrated that the likelihood of detecting deviations from the treatment plan increases significantly with time-resolved methods. Time–resolved methods could interrupt a treatment avoiding gross errors which is not possible with time-integrated dosimetry. In addition, lower experimental uncertainties can be achieved by using source-tracking instead of direct dose measurements. However, the detector position in relation to the patient anatomy remains a main source of uncertainty. The next steps towards clinical implementation will require clinical trials and systematic reporting of errors and near-misses. It is of utmost importance for each IVD system that its sensitivity to different types of errors is well understood, so that end-users can select the most suitable method for their needs. This report aims to formulate requirements for the stakeholders (clinics, vendors, and researchers) to facilitate increased clinical use of IVD in brachytherapy. The report focuses on high dose-rate IVD in brachytherapy providing an overview and outlining the need for further development and research.

External beam radiotherapy with photon beams is a highly accurate treatment modality, but requires extensive quality assurance programs to confirm that radiation therapy will be or was administered appropriately. In vivo dosimetry (IVD) is an essential element of modern radiation therapy because it provides the ability to catch treatment delivery errors, assist in treatment adaptation, and record the actual dose delivered to the patient. However, for various reasons, its clinical implementation has been slow and limited. The purpose of this report is to stimulate the wider use of IVD for external beam radiotherapy, and in particular of systems using electronic portal imaging devices (EPIDs). After documenting the current IVD methods, this report provides detailed software, hardware and system requirements for in vivo EPID dosimetry systems in order to help in bridging the current vendor-user gap. The report also outlines directions for further development and research. In vivo EPID dosimetry vendors, in collaboration with users across multiple institutions, are requested to improve the understanding and reduce the uncertainties of the system and to help in the determination of optimal action limits for error detection. Finally, the report recommends that automation of all aspects of IVD is needed to help facilitate clinical adoption, including automation of image acquisition, analysis, result interpretation, and reporting/documentation. With the guidance of this report, it is hoped that widespread clinical use of IVD will be significantly accelerated.

Background: Intracavitary brachytherapy plays a major role in management of cervical carcinoma. Assessment of dose received by OAR’s therefore becomes crucial for the estimation of radiation toxicities in HDR brachytherapy. Objective: Purpose of this study is to evaluate the role of in vivo dosimetry in HDR brachytherapy and to compare actual doses delivered to OAR’ s with those calculated during treatment planning. Material and Methods: In this retrospective study, 50 patients of cervical carcinoma were treated by Microselectron HDR. Out of 50 patients, 26 were treated with a dose of 7 Gy and 24 with a dose of 9 Gy, prescribed to point A. Brachytherapy planning and evaluation of dose to bladder and rectum was done on TPS & in vivo dosimetry was performed using portable MOSFET. Results: Calibration factors calculated for both dosimeters are almost equal and are 0.984 cGy/mV and 1.0895 cGy/mV. For bladder, dose deviation was found to be within ± 5% in 28 patients, ± 5-10% in 14 patients, ± 10-15% in 4 patients. Deviation between TPS-calculated dose and dose measured by MOSFET for rectum was within ± 5% in 31 patients, ± 5–10% in 8 patients, and ± 10–15% in 7 patients. Conclusion: TPS calculated doses were slightly higher than that measured by MOSFET. The use of small size MOSFET dosimeter is an efficient method for accurately measuring doses in high-dose gradient fields typically seen in brachytherapy. Therefore, to reduce the risk of large errors in dose delivery, in vivo dosimetry can be done in addition to TPS computations.