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Using a weekly survey of unemployed workers, this study examines gender differences in reservation wages and applied-for occupational categories. The analysis shows that a large portion of the gender difference in reservation wages is attributable to the fact that women and men search for different occupations. Findings further demonstrate that women are more likely to apply to occupations with higher percentages of female incumbents, and they target these occupations from the earlier stages of their job search, rather than adjusting their preferences over the course of unemployment. Further analysis shows that women are more likely to apply for occupational categories that offer greater flexibility in working hours, more opportunities for interpersonal interactions, less critical decision-making, and a less competitive environment. Finally, the analysis reveals that household responsibilities, particularly the number of children, and willingness to take risks are important factors influencing women's decisions to pursue occupations with less demanding work hours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the trends in women's economic outcomes in the United States, focusing primarily on labor force participation, occupational attainment, and the gender wage gap. Considerable progress was made on all dimensions prior to the 1990s followed by a slowing or stalling of gains thereafter, with a plateauing of female labor force participation trends and a slowing of women's occupational and wage convergence with men. The author considers the likelihood that progress in narrowing gender gaps will resume in these areas, and concludes it is unlikely without policy intervention. She then considers new policy initiatives to address work–family issues and labor market discrimination that may help to increase female labor force participation and narrow gender inequities in the labor market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates how investments in automation affect the gender pay gap. The evidence of the effects of automation on the labor market is growing; however, little is known about the implications of automation for the gender pay gap. The data used in this paper are from a matched employer–employee dataset incorporating detailed information on firms, their imports, and employee–level data for Estonian manufacturing and service employers for the period of 2006–2018. Through the use of the imports of automation goods as a proxy for the introduction of automation at the firm level, this paper estimates the effect of automation using simple Mincerian wage equations. The causality of the effect is further validated using propensity score matching (PSM). We find that introducing automation enlarges the gender pay gap, and PSM confirms that this also has a higher causal effect on the wages of male employees than female employees. The results imply that a higher representation of women in higher-paid positions does not guarantee a reduction in the gender pay gap in the presence of automation, and appropriate measures in education and retraining are needed to tackle the effect of automation on gender inequality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Secure multi-party computation has seen substantial performance improvements in recent years and is being increasingly used in commercial products. While a significant amount of work was dedicated to improving its efficiency under standard security models, the threat models do not account for information leakage from the output of secure function evaluation. Quantifying information disclosure about private inputs from observing the function outcome is the subject of this work. Motivated by the City of Boston gender pay gap studies, in this work, we focus on the computation of the average of salaries and quantify information disclosure about private inputs of one or more participants (the target) to an adversary via information-theoretic techniques. We study a number of distributions including log-normal, which is typically used for modeling salaries. We consequently evaluate information disclosure after repeated evaluation of the average function on overlapping inputs, as was done in the Boston gender pay study that ran multiple times, and provide recommendations for using the sum and average functions in secure computation applications. Our goal is to develop mechanisms that lower information disclosure about participants' inputs to a desired level and provide guidelines for setting up real-world secure evaluation of this function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the glass ceiling and sticky floor phenomena within the contexts of both the public and private sectors in Türkiye, while exploring sector‐specific differences. To do this, we use a recentered influence function‐based decomposition method to analyze data from the Household Labor Force Statistics spanning from 2014 to 2021. Our findings suggest that the sticky floor effect emerges as more prominent in the private sector, contrasting with the public sector where the glass ceiling effect holds greater sway. Additionally, our analysis reveals that gender discrimination appears to be more prevalent in the private sector, although it exhibits an increasing trend in the public sector. The evidence suggests a need for further research on the gender wage gap in Türkiye, especially within the context of the glass ceiling and sticky floor effects. This study contributes to the existing literature by offering a comprehensive examination of these phenomena in both public and private sectors, leveraging the availability of recent data and advancements in methodologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Portugal displays a persistent gender wage gap which increased during the 2010–2013 economic crisis. This paper aims at examining the developments in the gender wage gap for the private sector from 2009 to 2019 using a decomposition across the wage distribution. We conclude that the gap has decreased at the lower and middle quantiles but remains quite wide at the top. The largest part of the gap stems from the structure effect, which suggests persistent discrimination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the economic consequences of college attendance on wages, focusing on the wage increases associated with obtaining a degree, highlighting the Sheepskin Effect in a country characterized by high informality and youth unemployment as Colombia. Using administrative data for secondary school graduates (2002–2012) and a differences-in-differences framework, we estimate a 50.6% wage increase for college graduates and 68.1% premium over dropouts completing 90%-of-coursework. These findings suggest that college graduation is associated with reduced income inequality and a narrower gender wage gap, providing insights for policymakers on the benefits of promoting higher education to improve labor market outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: As health systems worldwide continue to face health workforce challenges exacerbated by the Covid-19 pandemic, chiropractors can play an important role in meeting increasing needs for rehabilitation services. However, limited evidence from some countries suggests the chiropractic workforce does not reflect the diversity of the population it serves. This observational study quantifies the chiropractor workforce in Canada in gender and ethnocultural composition and earnings, as tracers of equity and inclusion within this healthcare profession. Methods: We used 2021 population census data with integrated administrative income tax records to identify and characterize chiropractic practitioners aged 25–54. Following a descriptive analysis, multivariate regression and Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition methods were applied to assess gender and ethnic earnings differences, adjusting for a range of professional and personal factors. Results: The chiropractic workforce was underrepresented regarding women (44.5% versus 50.6% of the total population) and visible minorities (20.0% versus 26.5%). Despite similar levels of education, women's (unadjusted) earnings averaged 77.1 cents for every dollar earned by men in pandemic-affected 2020, narrowing slightly from 76.7 cents in 2019. Regression results showed significant earnings differences by gender and by ethnocultural identity, adjusting for other factors. An unexplainable gender wage gap persisted in the decomposition analysis, with women earning 6% less than men due to factors that could not be explained by differences in age structure or part-time work, pointing to additional contributing but unmeasured structural dynamics. Conclusion: Significant earnings disparities by gender and ethnicity among chiropractors emphasize the need for equity-oriented initiatives in leadership opportunities and compensation structures, to help influence the attractiveness of the profession to new talent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the massive incorporation of women into the labor market, equal pay for equal work remains a challenge. This article analyzes the influence of gender diversity in management positions on the gender wage gap (GWG) throughout the entire pay scale in Spain. The results show the existence of a GWG, particularly for wages below the average; though it decreases when female participation in management is higher. This is in line with the reduction of information asymmetry problems considered in statistical discrimination theories, which explain the barriers to promotion associated with dynamics at entry-level and low-qualified positions. JEL CLASSIFICATION: C31, J31, J71, M14 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Gender salary differences have been reported for pharmaceutical scientists in both the AAPS salary survey and the American association of colleges of pharmacy (AACP) pharmacy faculty demographics and salaries report. • The gender pay inequity worsens at later career stages. • Some potential causes of the pay inequity are shared, along with suggestions on what organizations and women can do to change the gender differences. Gender disparity in the pharmaceutical sciences contributes to the overall gender pay gap. The gender pay inequity is worse at later career stages. Salary data for pharmaceutical scientists has been reviewed from both the American Association of Pharmaceutical Sciences (AAPS) Salary Survey and the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) Pharmacy Faculty Demographics and Salaries report. We share some potential causes of the pay inequity, including implicit bias, pipeline issues, family responsibilities, and others. We suggest how organizations can put processes in place to help narrow the gender pay gap. Additionally, we share suggestions for how women must take a proactive role to ensure they reach their full potential and pay equity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gender pay gaps in earnings are well-documented in the literature. However, new factors contributing to women's lower earnings have emerged and remain under-researched. Educational choices are among them. We use a rich administrative dataset from Poland, a Central Eastern European country with high tertiary education enrolment and high female employment rates among young women, to study gender pay gaps among tertiary education graduates with degrees in different fields of study while paying particular attention to STEM fields graduates (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics). We find that already in the first year after graduation, women earn over 20% less than men. This gap widens over time. We also find significant variation across different STEM fields both in the size of the gender pay gap and in how it changes over time. The gap is the largest among mathematics graduates, at over 25%; while it does not exceed 3% among chemical and Earth sciences graduates. As these differences narrow only slightly within the first four years of graduates' working careers, policymakers' efforts to increase the number of women earning STEM degrees may not be enough to achieve gender pay equality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates how labour-market tightness affects market outcomes if firms use informal, self-enforcing, agreements to motivate workers. We characterise profit-maximising equilibria and show that an increase in the supply of homogeneous workers can increase wages. Moreover, even though all workers are identical in terms of skills or productivity, profit-maximising discrimination equilibria exist. There, a group of majority workers is paid higher wages than a group of minority workers, who may even be completely excluded. Minimum wages can reduce such discrimination and increase employment. We discuss how these results relate to empirical evidence on downward wage rigidity, immigration, the gender pay gap and credentialism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the 1940's, job evaluation methods are being used to establish the relative value of jobs within organizations in order to determine salaries. Job evaluation methods have been studied, but there has not been much systematic reflection on the research conducted so far. This scoping review of 199 articles demonstrates that topics changed over decades, starting with methodological questions in the 1940's, reflecting a start-up period. Historic overviews on wage policies appeared in the 1960's, and the topic of gender wage inequality in the 1980's. Guidelines were published in the 1990's. From 2000 onwards, the main topic was adapting job evaluation methods to specific contexts. Research declined since 2010. There was hardly any research on appending changes in job evaluation methods and criteria. Given the ever-changing nature of work and the upcoming demographic changes, we recommend to revive scientific research on job evaluation and propose an agenda with research questions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes gender differences in working patterns and wages on Amazon Mechanical Turk, a popular online labor platform. Using information on 2 million tasks, we find no gender differences in task selection nor experience. Nonetheless, women earn 20% less per hour on average. Gender differences in working patterns are a significant driver of this wage gap. Women are more likely to interrupt their working time on the platform with consequences for their task completion speed. A follow-up survey shows that the gender differences in working patterns and hourly wages are concentrated among workers with children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Employing China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) survey data from 2014 to 2018, this paper studies the impact of the digital economy on the gender wage gap. Benchmark results suggest that the digital economy can significantly narrow the gender wage gap. The mechanism analysis shows that the digital economy bridges the gender wage gap by reducing family care burdens and improving the employment quality in favour of women. The heterogeneity analysis shows that the digital economy is conducive to narrowing the gender wage gap of the group with low and medium labour skills and the group with higher family burdens, suggesting the inclusiveness of the digital economy for disadvantaged women. These findings have important policy implications and provide evidence for improving women's economic condition and narrowing the gender wage gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research shows that female workers are less sensitive to wages in their decision to switch jobs than male workers, and that this could explain a substantial part of the gender wage gap. This paper studies to what extent gender differences in preferences and personality traits explain the gender gap in the wage-elasticity of job-to-job transitions in the labor market. Using a novel decomposition approach in the context of mediated moderation and using German Socio-Economic Panel Survey (G-SOEP) data for the period 2005–2019, we find that gender differences in risk preferences, patience, trust, reciprocity, altruism, conscientiousness, ambition and self-esteem explain about 25% of the gender gap in wage-elasticities of job separations. A detailed decomposition suggests that risk preferences, trust and ambition contribute most to this gender gap in wage-elasticity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The gig economy, fundamentally relying on the digital economy, is often celebrated for its potential to expand employment opportunities and close gender wage gaps. However, research on its gender impacts in China, the largest developing country with a rapidly expanding gig sector, is notably lacking. Employing discrimination theory, the findings challenge the prevailing optimistic view on the role of the gig economy. Utilising the China Labour Dynamics Survey data from 2014, 2016, and 2018, and applying the Bourguignon, Fournier, and Gurgand model to correct selection bias, this study reveals that, digitalisation has exacerbated gender wage gaps, with the wage growth of female gig workers significantly lagging behind their male counterparts, especially among married and older cohorts. Adopting the Neumark decomposition, the analysis confirms that discrimination largely accounts for this gap. This study uses Generalised Propensity Score Matching as robustness test and concludes with policy recommendations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study provides new evidence of the gender wage gap among recent university graduates at different stages of their early career. Using a unique administrative dataset from Russia, we estimate the gender wage gap at means and across wage distribution for a cohort of 2018 university graduates during the first 4 years after graduation. We explore the contribution of educational and job factors to the explanation of the gap. Although a substantial gap of 14% is already present at labour market entry, it is two times smaller compared to the gap for the overall working population. Eighty five percent of the entry wage gap can be explained with differences in fields of study, work experience, and job characteristics. More than 4 years after graduation, the gender wage gap experiences a dramatic increase, reaching 26%. Only 28% of the resulting gap can be explained by the observed characteristics, including industrial and occupational segregation. The size of the gap varies drastically in different parts of the wage distribution, suggesting the existence of a strong glass ceiling effect from the very beginning of graduate careers. The rapidly expanding early career gender wage gap with a growing unexplained component suggests that education policies may have limited ability to promote gender equality in the labour market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the technology have always played an important role in the evolution of human life, the impressive speed of technological developments in today's world has turned many minds to the consequences of these developments. By affecting the behavior and performance of societies, these technologies also affect economies. Since it seems that the growth of new technologies will increase the share of the service economy and the share of skilled labor and, as a result, change the structure of employment in the economy, it seems that the gender wage gap will also be affected by the technological developments in today's world. The gender wage gap in the labor market is known as one of the most important aspects of inequality between men and women, and despite policies and plans at the national and international levels to eliminate gender inequality, the gender wage gap remains an unsolved problem. Therefore, this study is designed with the aim of evaluating the factors affecting the wage gap between men and women with an emphasis on industry technology. In this regard, the effect of industry technology on the gender wage gap has been investigated by manufacturing industries of Iran at the level of two-digit ISIC codes during the years 2006, 2011, 2016 and 2021. The findings of this research indicate that technology has a positive and significant effect on the gender wage gap in industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research article investigates the impact of childbearing and horizontal segregation on income disparities among young academics in Hungary. Using a comprehensive, large-scale survey data set on the demographics and working conditions of academics in Hungary, this research highlights the precarious conditions in the Hungarian academic sector. The findings reveal that researchers and lecturers often rely on multiple sources of income and work extra hours to secure their livelihoods, creating a disadvantageous situation for women with young children, especially during the highly competitive early stages of their careers. The results suggest that the income differences between men and women are to a large extent explained by the so-called fatherhood wage premium and that horizontal gender segregation of the scientific fields has a significant effect on income disparities as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research argues that occupational gender pay gaps arise from greedy jobs within occupations. Greedy jobs involve working long and unpredictable hours in jobs where individuals are not easily substitutable. They engender compensating differentials resulting in an earnings‐to‐hours elasticity that often exceeds 1. This paper shows that greedy jobs also exist in Australia, where labour market institutions differ substantially from those in the United States. It shows that occupational gender earnings gaps are highest in occupations where greedy jobs proliferate. Wage‐setting institutions engender heterogeneous effects on occupational gender earnings gaps. Relative to the United States, occupational gender earnings gaps are smaller in Australia, consistent with evidence that labour market institutions compress the earnings distribution. Within occupations, the use of collective agreements attenuates the size of occupational gender earnings gaps, while the use of individual agreements increases them. Not surprisingly, individuals employed in greedy occupations predominantly use individual agreements to negotiate pay. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines three dimensions influencing the gender wage gap: rural employment, type of occupation, and workers' career stage. The findings suggest that (1) rural workplaces are associated with lower wages; (2) women face a higher wage penalty than men in rural, low‐paying jobs; (3) wage determinants differ between low‐ and high‐paying jobs, leading to variable impacts on the gender wage gap; (4) gender wage gaps are significantly narrower for early‐career workers than for older workers; and (5) even minor annual wage disparities contribute to significant wealth gaps by the end of the working life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Legislation and regulation have been effective in reducing the gender wage gap in developed countries; however, the gap still exists globally, and progress towards narrowing the gap has been unacceptably slow even in regions where it is improving. This study presents the analysis of gender wage gap in Kenya's urban labor market by using the World Bank Skills Towards Employability and Productivity Survey (WBSTEPS). This study employed Mincer earnings regressions with Heckman selection correction and the Blinder-Oaxaca and Neumark decomposition procedures to answer the research questions. The results of the wage determination and participation in the labor market show that there is no selectivity-bias problem. Personal characteristics such as education and age, as well as work-related characteristics, are important factors in determining earnings. The magnitude of the gender wage gap varies across the wage distribution, and the results of the wage decomposition reveal that women in urban Kenya earn 84.5-to-86% of men's earnings. The earnings gap is overwhelmingly due to differences in returns to endowments, which account for between 70% and 94.7% of the total earnings gap. Admittedly, the study found evidence of discrimination against women in the returns to endowments, but also observed pronounced favoritism towards men. However, discrimination against women is more pronounced than favoritism towards men. Addressing the gender wage gap in Kenya requires a multifaceted approach that tackles both systemic biases against women and structural barriers that hinder women from accessing equal opportunities in education, training, and career advancement and government policies that minimize favoritism towards men. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Claudia Goldin's landmark Nobel Prize in Economics on labour economics and gender pay gap among educational and occupational strata has generated discussion around an interesting concept called 'greedy work.' Greedy work, as Goldin explains, is a job that pays disproportionately more on a per-hour basis, when people work a greater number of hours, or more importantly, has less control over those hours. This article argues that greedy work results in much larger social costs than just gender pay gaps. The social costs of greedy work find expressions in poor work–life balance, an organisational work culture that creates unhealthy competition, and skewed perceptions of distributive justice at the workplace. These outcomes are interrelated and transcends gender boundaries. The article concludes, transparency, procedural clarity, and a work culture, that encourages work that is cooperative in nature, could potentially minimise these social costs. Discussion around the social costs of greedy work gains relevance in the context of the recent debates around the linkage of longer work hours and nation's productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To obtain a more complete understanding of the persisting gender earnings gap in Germany, this paper investigates both the cross‐sectional and lifetime dimension of gender inequalities. Based on a dynamic microsimulation model, we analyse how gender differences accumulate over work lives to examine the lifetime dimension of the gender gap. We estimate an average gender gap in lifetime earnings of 51.5 per cent for birth cohorts 1964–72. We show that this unadjusted gender lifetime earnings gap increases strongly with the number of children, ranging from 17.3 per cent for childless women to 68.0 per cent for women with three or more children. Results from a counterfactual analysis approach show an adjusted gender gap in lifetime earnings of around 10 per cent, suggesting that the gender gap in lifetime earnings is rather driven by gender differences in observable characteristics than by differences in rewards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Employer Wage Subsidy Caps and Part-Time Work. I See i Kelly, Erin L. Yang, Duanyi, Erin L. Kelly, Laura D. Kubzansky, and Lisa Berkman. I See i Kelly, Erin L. Wright, Chris F. I See i Arnholtz, Jens. Schatz, Ronald W. I The Labor Board Crew: Remaking Worker-Employer Relations from Pearl Harbor to the Reagan Era. i Reviewed by Joseph A. McCartin. Employer Wage Subsidy Caps and Part-Time Work. [Extracted from the article]

Social progress through improved treatment of minority groups (e.g., forbidding racial or sexual harassment) may or may not spread to corporate cultures through competition. We provide a theory of corporate culture, and we show that emergent, progressive corporate cultures can displace existing, regressive ones when the prevailing wage gap is large between majority and minority groups. The model provides testable predictions on racial and gender wage gaps across firms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine the effects of self-control and risk aversion on the gender wage gap in Australia. We also include the Big Five personality traits to compare the interaction between all three as well as other traditional determinants of wages. We find that both self-control and risk aversion play a significant role in explaining the Australian gender wage gap. Furthermore, their effects on the gender wage gap are still significant in the presence of the Big Five personality traits. We find risk aversion plays a role through gender differences in endowments of it, rather than gender differences in its effect on wages. In contrast, we show that gender differences in the return of self-control and personality on wages explain almost one-third of the unexplained gender wage gap in Australia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using a sample of recently graduated college students from South Korea, we estimate the effects of the between-majors and within-major gender wage gap. We use a recentered influence function to decompose the wage differential between majors and find that women face a higher rate of return to the field of study. In addition, women tend to select their program of study with the intention of optimizing their earnings potential relative to men. In calculating the within-major gender wage gap, we control for selectivity into a field of study extending the current methodology to a multinomial logit setting. We test our model using a sample of new graduates from South Korea. We consider six college majors. The within-major wage differential ranged from 8.2% for natural science graduates to 17% for social science graduates. After selection is accounted for, the gender wage gap becomes smaller in humanities graduates but increases in natural science and medicine graduates. Decomposing the selection correction term into explained and unexplained factors eliminates discrimination in medicine and points to reverse discrimination in natural science. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapid expansion of precarious employment carries risks of exacerbating the gender wage gap in China. This article finds an inverse relationship between flexibility and security in the labor market, disproportionately affecting women workers. Drawing from the Marxist-feminist theory of social reproduction, the study conceptualizes China’s social reproduction regime as developmentalist, characterized by ongoing tension between economic development and social reproduction. Promoting precarious work, which reflects the operational logic of the developmentalist social reproduction regime, is essentially transferring social reproduction cost from capital to labor. This cost is predominantly shouldered by precarious workers, particularly women, resulting in a widened gender wage gap. Using the China Labor-force Dynamic Survey, the study finds empirical support for the theorization that the gender wage gap among precarious workers is significantly larger than among non-precarious workers. The article proposes policies addressing the gap by shifting the cost of social reproduction from labor back to capital.HIGHLIGHTSGender wage gap is wider among precarious workers in China.Marxist-feminist theories help us to better understand GWG in precarious work.Women in precarious work face income loss risks and heavier domestic responsibilities.Developmentalist social reproduction regime seeks to balance growth and reproduction.The cost of social reproduction should be shifted back to capital.Gender wage gap is wider among precarious workers in China.Marxist-feminist theories help us to better understand GWG in precarious work.Women in precarious work face income loss risks and heavier domestic responsibilities.Developmentalist social reproduction regime seeks to balance growth and reproduction.The cost of social reproduction should be shifted back to capital. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study gives voice to US women who overcame the challenges of their gender or race and had to switch jobs or industries to achieve success in the journalism and public relations professions. A feminist theoretical approach was adopted to conduct in-depth qualitative interviews with 18 racially diverse journalists and public relations practitioners over the age of 50 who reflected on their professional mobility in different stages of their careers and in different organizational settings. Regardless of the industry and type of organization, women shared firsthand experiences of gender inequalities in pay and career progressions, double standards in physical appearance, and subtle sexism. Minority journalists and public relations practitioners reported instances of subtle racial inequalities and gendered racism. Women who switched from journalism to public relations found more flexibility in the workplace but did not necessarily improve their job security. Participants' accounts underscored the need for recruiting, retaining, training, and empowering employees of diverse genders, races, ethnicities, and ages and addressing implicit sexism and implicit racism in all communication industries. This research also calls for improved industry standards that allow older women, especially women of color, to have more opportunities for leadership and professional development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The editorial in the "School Leadership & Management" journal focuses on the WomenEd movement, which aims to empower women in education to progress on their leadership journey by removing systemic barriers. The editorial highlights persistent obstacles such as gender and racial inequalities, the gender pay gap, and societal expectations that hinder women from taking on leadership roles in education. Through a series of articles, the special issue explores the challenges faced by women leaders in education globally, emphasizing the need for novel approaches to understanding and supporting women in leadership positions. [Extracted from the article]

Since the beginning of the 21st century, it has been found that men are paid more than women in the same job position, without this depending on their productivity or work skills. The objective of this paper is to analyze the gender wage gap in the state of Hidalgo, after the COVID-19 pandemic, through the statistical indicators provided by INEGI in the National Occupation and Employment Survey (ENOE) during the period from the first quarter of 2021 (2021.01) to the fourth quarter of 2023 (2023.04), using the Oaxaca-Blinder methodology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using UK data supplied by universities, this paper confirms that women academics earn less than men, even after controlling for a range of covariates. Despite narrowing after 2004/05, the observed (unconditional) pay gap was still −0.089 in 2019/20, while the conditional pay gap was relatively unchanged remaining at around −0.050 in 2019/20. The results are consistent with the literature on why pay gaps might occur, with the key disparity occurring when women face a higher cost of investment and statistical discrimination, linked to bias, to achieve promotion. That is, the results presented here suggest that earnings gaps are significantly reduced when grade-balanced gender sub-groups are compared, suggesting conditional wage differences are more likely due to bias rather than any inherent differences in (research) productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study focuses on issues of the adjusted gender pay gap (AGPG) and problematises existing approaches to calculating this indicator, especially Eurostat's methodology. It analyses the different factors and variables with which Eurostat and other authors work, noting flaws in their measurement methods. The unadjusted gender pay gap (GPG) is typically divided into explained and unexplained parts, with the latter interpreted as the effect of unequal pay for equal work. This study demonstrates why the unexplained part might be considerably smaller than reported by existing studies (typically at 14%=15% and 17% in the case of Eurostat). What is key to determining the size of the explained part of the GPG is what productive characteristics and how many of them are included in statistical model. Existing analyses have artifi- cially increased the adjusted part of the GPG due to simplifications in their application. For example, as this study shows, substituting the category of total job experience with the category of age has a significant impact, along with several minor shifts in the statistical analysis. When combined, these shifts are responsible for the substantial overestimation of the adjusted GPG. This study aims to eliminate these flaws and provide a theoretical and descriptive account of the reasons behind the overestimation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article "Technology and Women's Empowerment" explores how technology, particularly information and communication technologies (ICTs), can empower women by improving their skills, knowledge, job opportunities, and access to markets and essential services. While technology has the potential to empower women, there are still barriers such as limited access to technology, unaffordable internet services, and gender disparities in underdeveloped nations. The book emphasizes the importance of governments and nonprofit groups in addressing these disparities and ensuring women are not left behind in the digital economy. It also highlights the intersection of technology with other aspects of identity, such as race and class, and advocates for more intentional outreach and training programs for marginalized communities to close the digital gender divide. [Extracted from the article]

Purpose: Analysis and assessment of the situation of women on the Polish labour market with particular reference to the gender pay gap in the face of the challenges of the contemporary labour market. Design/methodology/approach: This study is an overview and attempts to analyse the gender pay gap in Poland, based on recent Polish and foreign reports. Findings: The results of the research contained in the reports analysed indicate that inequality in the position of women and men on the labour market is perpetuated and that the distance separating Poland in this respect from the countries of the European Union is not being reduced. Actions taken on this issue at state level are insufficient, failing to move away from a patriarchal model of economic development to an equality model. In response to growing concerns about the gender pay gap, the Council of Europe has taken steps to create a common position on the issue. Research limitations/implications: The paper points to the problem of the gender pay gap, which has serious consequences in today's labour market. The study points out the common misinterpretation of the GDP indicator (gender pay gap), which, unlike the adjusted pay gap, significantly understates the actual statistics. Practical implications: The author points to the pro-equality measures contained in the Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council of the European Union on strengthening the application of the principle of equal pay for men and women for equal work or work of equal value through pay transparency and enforcement mechanisms. Originality/value: The expected economic downturn and changes in the labour market, driven by digitalisation, flexible forms of employment and remote working, bring new challenges for pro-equality labour market policies. Harnessing the potential of women brings tangible results for economies and businesses, hence measures should be taken to eliminate gender disparities in various areas of the wider labour market, including closing the wage gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We develop a new equilibrium model in which households' labour supply choices form the link between sorting on the marriage market and sorting on the labour market. We first show that in theory, the nature of home production—whether partners' hours are complements or substitutes—shapes equilibrium labour supply as well as marriage and labour market sorting. We then estimate our model using German data to empirically assess the nature of home production, and find that spouses' home hours are complements. We investigate to what extent complementarity in home hours drives sorting and inequality. We find that home production complementarity strengthens positive marriage sorting and reduces the gender gap in hours and in labour sorting. This puts significant downward pressure on the gender wage gap and on within-household income inequality, but fuels between-household inequality. Our estimated model sheds new light on the sources of inequality in today's Germany, and—by identifying important shifts in home production technology toward more complementarity—on the evolution of inequality over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper develops a method to estimate workers' outside employment opportunities. We outline a matching model with two-sided heterogeneity, from which we derive a sufficient statistic, the "outside options index" (OOI), for the effect of outside options on earnings, holding worker productivity constant. The OOI uses the cross-sectional concentration of similar workers across job types to quantify workers' outside options as a function of workers' commuting costs, preferences, and skills. Using German micro-data, we find that differences in options explain 20% of the gender earnings gap, and that gender gaps in options are mostly due to differences in the implicit costs of commuting and moving. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Addressing issues of gender inequality is ongoing and important in the context of broader employment relations at work. Scholars within the Australian industrial relations community work toward the continuance of research and analysis that highlights the perennial issues impacting women in the labor market, to address historical and systemic barriers and identified inequalities. This article provides a review of the major developments and activities undertaken toward addressing gender inequality based on recent changes to industrial relations legislation. The article focuses on the Workplace Gender Equality Act 2012 and the amendments made via the Workplace Gender Equality Amendment (Closing the Gender Pay Gap) 2023 Bill. The Fair Work Act 2009 amendments via the Secure Jobs, Better Pay 2022 and Closing Loopholes 2023 are also discussed. This article reviews these recent changes in answer to this special issue's call for a review of the key issues and developments made toward addressing gender inequality, useful for both academics and practitioners of employment relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines gender inequality focusing on two critical spheres in which gender inequality is generated: education and work. Our objective is to provide a snapshot of gender inequality across key indicators as well as a dynamic perspective that highlights successes and failures. We also facilitate a cross-country comparison by grouping countries within Latin America by their level of economic development and drawing comparisons with countries outside the region. Finally, we reflect on differences in the ways that gender inequalities play out across different socio-economic groups, particularly those that highlight other sources of inequality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective Background Method Results Conclusion We assess how the distribution of parents across firms contributes to parenthood wage gaps in a low‐wage US labor market and examine the role of understudied compensating differentials relevant to precarious work.In the United States, parenthood drives a wedge in wages, as mothers often earn less than women without children, whereas fathers typically earn more than men without children. Firms bear influence over setting wages and sorting workers, yet firms are largely omitted from research on parental wage gaps in the United States.We draw on novel employer–employee matched data on 74,086 hourly service‐sector workers to decompose parental wage gaps into their within‐ and between‐firm components. We leverage uniquely rich data on compensating differentials to test if they sort parents across firms.We found that mothers are overrepresented in lower‐wage firms, accounting for 68% of mothers' wage gap. In contrast, fathers' wage gap accrued within firms. We found limited evidence that compensating differentials, even schedule quality, produce parental wage gaps.We show for the first time that in a major US industry, mothers are segregated in low‐paying firms compared to women without children, while fathers are paid more than men without children in the same firms. Our findings largely do not tell a story of parents voluntarily choosing between wages and job quality, instead calling for more research on firm practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In Canada, a new federal public dental insurance plan, being phased in over 2022–2025, may help enhance financial access to dental services. However, as in many other countries, evidence is limited on the supply and distribution of human resources for oral health (HROH) to meet increasing population needs. This national observational study aimed to quantify occupational, geographical, institutional, and gender imbalances in the Canadian dental workforce to help inform benchmarking of HROH capacity for improving service coverage. Methods: Sourcing microdata from the 2021 Canadian population census, we described workforce imbalances for three groups of postsecondary-qualified dental professionals: dentists, dental hygienists and therapists, and dental assistants. To assess geographic maldistribution relative to population, we linked the person-level census data to the geocoded Index of Remoteness for all inhabited communities. To assess gender-based inequities in the dental labour market, we performed Blinder-Oaxaca decompositions for examining differences in professional earnings of women and men. Results: The census data tallied 3.4 active dentists aged 25–54 per 10,000 population, supported by an allied workforce of 1.7 dental hygienists/therapists and 1.6 dental assistants for every dentist. All three professional groups were overrepresented in heavily urbanized communities compared with more rural and remote areas. Almost all dental service providers worked in ambulatory care settings, except for male dental assistants. The dentistry workforce was found to have achieved gender parity numerically, but women dentists still earned 21% less on average than men, adjusting for other characteristics. Despite women representing 97% of dental hygienists/therapists, they earned 26% less on average than men, a significant difference that was largely unexplained in the decomposition analysis. Conclusions: Accelerating universal coverage of oral healthcare services is increasingly advocated as an integral, but often neglected, component toward achieving the health-related Sustainable Development Goals. In the Canadian context of universal coverage for medical (but not dentistry) services, the oral health workforce was found to be demarcated by considerable geographic and gendered imbalances. More cross-nationally comparable research is needed to inform innovative approaches for equity-oriented HROH planning and financing, often critically overlooked in public policy for health systems strengthening. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research investigates the gender pay gap within Portugal's informal economies, analyzing data spanning the years 2005 to 2020 using Vector Error Correction Models (VECM). The study focuses on four key variables: employers (total), wage and salaried workers (female), wage and salaried workers (male), and educational attainment by way of completing a minimum of upper secondary schooling among a population of age 25+. The findings reveal nuanced relationships among these variables: educational attainment (EA) positively impacts the total number of employers within Portugal's informal economies. A significant correlation exists between EA and wage and salaried workers (female), albeit with complex dynamics. Similarly, EA correlates with wage and salaried workers (male), though the influence is less pronounced. EA also demonstrates a significant association with educational attainment through completing upper secondary schooling among a population of age 25+. These results underscore the multifaceted nature of the gender pay gap within informal economies, influenced by a variety of factors beyond education. Policymakers and stakeholders should consider these findings when designing strategies to promote gender equality in this critical sector, recognizing the need for comprehensive and context-specific approaches. Further research is encouraged to deepen our understanding of this issue and inform evidence-based interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Female physicians with children often work fewer hours and take fewer shifts due to additional family responsibilities. This can contribute to a gender pay gap in the medical profession. However, limited research in Japan has quantitatively examined the factors contributing to this gap. This study aims to address this gap in the literature. Methods: We analyzed the alumni data from a medical school in Hokkaido, Japan, for 260 physicians (198 males and 62 females). We used multivariable regression models to identify factors influencing earnings from medical practice, with a focus on gender, work schedules, parenthood, and any career interruptions related to childcare. Results: Our analysis revealed a 25.0% earnings gap between male and female physicians. Nearly all female physicians with children experienced career interruptions due to childcare, while this was uncommon for male physicians. When these childcare-related interruptions were factored in, the gender pay gap narrowed by 9.7%. After adjusting for work schedules and specialty choices, female physicians with children still earned 37.2% less than male physicians, while those without children earned only 4.4% less. This suggests that motherhood is a significant driver of the gender pay gap among physicians. Conclusions: These findings highlight the negative impact of motherhood on female physicians' earnings. This emphasizes the need for policy measures to mitigate the disadvantages faced by mothers in the medical profession. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]