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The aim of the study has been to reveal that city-states have originated to the philosophical environment and they have been shaped in the hands of philosopher governors, motivated by the simultaneous existing of city-states and philosophical thought systems in Ancient China. For this purpose, it has been focused on how shaped city-states by first philosophers in Ancient China with their official duties in city-states such as prime ministers, councilor, statesmanship etc. and how Ancient China’s own city-states played the role on the existing of philosophy in Ancient China. There have been also clear effects of these philosophers’ ideas in the disappearance of city-states without leaving behind in later Chinese history. In addition, the ancient texts, which have supported the claim of the article, written by these philosophers have been referred, rather than archeology. In the study, the processes that originated city-states in China and the schools of thought existed from the struggle between these city-states were examined. After briefly issued that the ideas of some key philosophers who guided the city-states with the activation of intellectual environment, how the city-states transformed aligned with these ideas has been discussed. As a result, the chaos that the political and social changes in China brought with catalyzed the philosophical thought in China and philosophers who held state positions had a first-hand influence on the transformation of city-states in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, it was aimed to learn students' thoughts and metaphorical understandings about the mathematics questions in the "High School Transition Examination" for 8th grade students. In addition, this study also aimed to examine the distribution of students' ideas about this exam according to their gender and to compare their perceptions through related metaphors. This is because mathematics questions in LGS play an important role in determining students' future educational steps. In this study, 8th grade students' perceptions of LGS mathematics questions were investigated by taking into consideration the methodological form of mathematics, which is the main subject of investigation in the philosophy of mathematics, and the perspective on the nature of mathematical knowledge, and metaphors were used to explain these perceptions. The study was prepared with a sampling model within the scope of qualitative research and content analysis technique was used to analyze the data obtained. The sample of the study consists of 125 students studying in the eighth grades of six different public schools in Nusaybin district of Mardin in the 2023-2024 academic year. Of these students, 65 were female and 60 were male. The participants were asked to define the concept of 'LGS Mathematics Questions' through a metaphor and explain why they chose the metaphor with the reason or reasons. For this purpose, the participants were asked to write the sentence "'-LGS math questions are like... because... "I...-" was used as an activity form. According to the research findings, the participants produced a total of 60 different metaphors. These metaphors were divided into six main conceptual categories: 1. LGS mathematics questions as an uncomfortable/challenging situation. 2. LGS mathematics questions as hopelessness/unsolvable. 3. LGS mathematics questions as struggle/effort/labor. 4. LGS math questions as easy/fun/attention. 5. LGS math questions as uncertainty/necessity. 6. LGS math questions as failure. The percentages of these categories were as follows: LGS mathematics questions evoking feelings of discomfort and difficulty (23.33%), requiring struggle and effort (18.33%), giving a sense of hopelessness and hopelessness (21.66%), being associated with ease, attention and fun (15%), failure (6.60%) and uncertainty or redundancy (15%). The results of the study revealed that students had a negative perception of LGS mathematics questions in general, and that they perceived these questions as being mostly uncomfortable and difficult. This shows the pressure and difficulty level of LGS mathematics questions on students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In utopian texts, philosophical understandings of politics, state, society, and individual are presented, as well as detailed information about the city. It has always been interesting to think or dream of a utopian and ideal city based on the real chaotic situation of the city in which we live. For this reason, issues such as the order of the city, the condition of the streets, and the structure of the houses have been brought to the agenda in utopias and suggestions have been put forward. Accordingly, there has always been a city policy in every utopia. From Plato's Republic to Thomas More's Utopia, fundamental research has been conducted on the condition and order of the city: How should the city or site be? How high should the city walls be? How many houses should there be in each city? According to what criteria should the order and size of the houses be determined? Although all these questions have been addressed in utopian texts, it should be assumed that they can also be valid for any city in the modern age. However, if there is no utopia for the city or, in contemporary terms, a city plan and project, it is inevitable to encounter a chaotic situation. It should be stated that it is not enough to have only a city utopia or policy. Therefore, the city must have a plan and this plan must be implemented meticulously. We aim to make a phenomenal analysis of the settlement area called "Yenişehir" in Mardin and to make some determinations on this subject. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bu makale, temelde kanonların sanattaki kullanım alanları ve manası bakımından incelenmektedir. Zira müzikte, edebiyatta da kanonlar kendi bilimsel yapılarına göre farklılık gösterebilmektedir. Yanı sıra sanatçıların evrensel değerleri, estetik ideallerinin nüanslarına odaklanarak, sanat üzerindeki kanonik eserlerin boyutlarını ele almaktadır. Makale, kanonik eserlerin nasıl belirlendiği, hangi kriterlerin kullanıldığı ve kanonik ürünlerin estetik değerleri ve toplumsal öğeler gibi konuları tartışmaktadır. Makalede öncelikle kanonik nesnelerin belirlenmesindeki kriterlerin objektifliği ve evrenselliği konularına değinilmektedir. Burada, kanonik nesnelerin tanımlanmasındaki farklı ölçütlerin zaman ve kültüre bağlı olarak değiştirilebildiği zira bazı evrensel öğelerin bulunduğu vurgulanmaktadır. Daha sonra, makalede, kanonik bilgilerin, estetik değerlerin ve toplumsal verilerin tartışılmasına geçilmektedir. Zira, estetik değerin nesnel mi yoksa öznel mi olduğu ele alınarak, kanonik ürünlerin estetik değerlerinin nasıl belirlendiği konusunu inceler. Dolayısıyla kanonik obje yapımında kullanılan kriterlerin genel durumları ve evrenselliği konuları, kanonik ürünlerin estetik değerleri ve toplumsal öğeleri gibi kıstasları ele alınmaktadır. Kanonik eser konsepti, belirli bir dönem kabul edilen ve örnek olarak verilen sanat eserlerine verilen bir isimdir. Sanatın evrensel değerleri, sanatın insan deneyimini ifade etme paylaşma gücüdür. Estetik idealler ise, sanatın güzelliği, uyum ve anlam arayışını ifade eder. Tarama çevrim içi araştırma ve doküman analiz yöntemi ile yürütülmeye çalışılan bu araştırmada kanonik eser kavramının ölçüleri, standart evrensel değerleri ve estetik idealleri üzerinde durulmaktadır. Kanonik eserlerin toplumsal ve kültürel özellikleri de tartışılmaktadır. Bu makale, kanonik eser kavramının boyutlarını etkileyici bir şekilde ele alarak, sanatın evrensel değerlerini ve estetik ideallerini vurgulamaktadır.

The relationship between humanity, the creator, and the universe has been one of the most fundamental issues shaping ontological debates throughout human history, influencing the intellectual realms of philosophy, religion, and literature. The ontological theories that developed in the Anatolian region under the influence of Islam and Sufism are prominent metaphorical elements in classical Turkish poetry. The concept of "generation and corruption" introduced by philosophers during the era of Ancient Greek civilization and interpreted by numerous philosophers and scholars within the Islamic world, was developed based on the motion of matter. In Arabic, this concept is expressed by the terms "kevn" and "fesâd" and is one of the philosophically grounded phrases used in classical Turkish poetry, often in connection with the concept of the world, centered around the perception of existence. In Islamic philosophy, the idea of the continuous change and transformation of matter is reflected in the notion of generation and corruption. In poetry, however, it is commonly used to emphasize the transient, temporary, and deceptive nature of the world, influenced by this transformation. It is also noteworthy that these couplets are created with an imaginative approach to philosophical subjects. This article aims to explore the areas of use of this theory, referred to as "kevn ü fesâd" in classical poetry, and to identify the elements with which it is associated in poetry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Economic & Social Research / ESAM Ekonomik ve Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi is the property of Ekonomik ve Sosyal Arastirmalar Merkezi (Journal of Economic & Social Research) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

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Copyright of Mevzu is the property of Ali Sever and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Social Sciences Studies is the property of Social Sciences Studies and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Philosophy of history, in its simplest definition, is the understanding of history with a philosophical mind, a kind of philosophizing or philosophizing. It is generally accepted that Voltaire was the first to articulate philosophy of history as a name and Vico was the first to institutionalize it as a discipline. Although this is generally accepted, in fact, long before these two names, first Aristotle and then Ibn Khaldūn, with various methods and discourses, put forward an approach that history could only gain value and meaning by taking on a philosophical nature. Thus, they contributed to the formation of the first nuclei of the philosophy of history. This study, which aims to compare Aristotle's and Ibn Khaldūn's conceptions of history or philosophies of history, reveals that both Aristotle and Ibn Khaldūn, apart from some simple nuances between them, agree on the idea that history can only be valuable by assuming a philosophical character. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article addresses a written debate between Najm al-Dīn al-Kātibī (d. 675 AH/1277 AD) and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī (d. 672 AH/1274 AD) on the contingency argument, which is one of the most well-known proofs offered in history regarding the existence of God. According to thinkers before al-Kātibī, the contingency argument verifies the Necessary Being, and then it debunks the possibility of infinite regress. By “earlier thinkers,” al-Kātibī means especially Avicenna (d. 428 AH/1037 AD) and Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (d. 606/1210). According to al-Kātibī, the notion of the Necessary Being was proved through the contingency argument they put forward, but a careful examination of their arguments indicates that they presented no definitive proof refuting the notion of infinite regress. Therefore, according to al-Kātibī, what Avicenna and Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī claimed to prove the impossibility of infinite regress through the contingency argument is not valid. As al-Ṭūsī responded to al-Kātibī’s objections, a debate consisting of three letters from each side emerged between them. At the end of the debate, al-Kātibī found al-Ṭūsī’s explanations reasonable, and he admitted that they were correct. However, the parties did not mention the agreed version of the argument at the end of the debate. For this reason, I added this agreed argument at the end of this study in accordance with the parties’ declarations. The purpose of the present study is to analyse this debate in its natural order and to eliminate technical ambiguities it involves, defending Avicenna’s, al-Rāzī’s, and al-Ṭūsī’s philosophical position in the contingency argument about proving the impossibility of infinite regress through the argument. On the other hand, this debate is an epitome of the classical debate tradition. It is also significant in the sense that it reveals one of the best examples of the interdisciplinary discussion between kalām and philosophical schools, and the application of classical logic to theoretical disciplines. As a result of our analyses of the debate, we have concluded that the objections brought by al-Kātibī against the contingency argument in parallel with the conclusion of the debate accepted by the parties, maintain the contingency argument. According to this conclusion, the contingency argument is a proof which invalidates infinite regress while proving the existence of the Necessary Being.

Bu çalışma, Charles Larmore'un Morality And Metaphysics eseri üzerine yazılmış bir değerlendirmedir.

In the evolution process of Islamic law, respectively the concepts of "fiqh", "fiqh procedure", "maqasid" and "philosophy of fiqh" have an important place. Although the meanings and usage areas of the concepts in question are different, there is a close relationship between them. While fiqh refers to all the provisions that concern the taxpayer, the fiqh method focuses on the methods of transferring the provisions and inferring them from rational evidence. The theory of maqasid, which is evaluated within the scope of fiqh procedure, refers to the principle of "benefit" and "harm" that are intended to be avoided for people in religious provisions. The principle in question was divided into "necessities, needs and tahsiniyât" and everything that benefits people's life, mind, religion, chastity and property was considered "benefit", and everything that harmed them was considered "maleficence". The theory of maqasid has been expressed from time to time with different concepts such as hıkma, purpose and cause. There is a general opinion that the process pioneered by Juwayni in using maqasid, which is directly or indirectly included in the nas, as a fiqh term, was transformed into a systematic form with Ghazali. The contributions of İzz, Karafî and Şatibi in the later periods are an undeniable fact. Shatibi, who lived in the eighth century Hijri, had a special interest in maqasıd, which led him to be evaluated on an independent basis from the fiqh method in later periods. The concept of philosophy, used in disciplines such as "philosophy of law", "philosophy of religion" and "philosophy of history", examines the epistemological principles of the branch of science to which it is related. The epistemological principles in question are absolute and are not limited to any dimension within their scope. In this regard, the same sensitivity should be observed in the definition of "philosophy of fiqh". Developments in social and cultural life during the transition from the traditional social structure to the social dynamics shaped by the industrial and technological age have paved the way for sciences to gain different horizons. The evolution of the theory of maqasid, updated and developed by Ibn Ashur, into the "philosophy of Islamic law" in the twentieth century also caused maqasid to become a discipline independent of the fiqh procedure. The works of scholars such as Ahmet er-Raysûnî and Allâl el-Fâsî also made serious contributions to the field. The reflections of the tendency to identify maqasid and maslaha with the philosophy of fiqh are seen in Turkey as well as in other Islamic countries. As a matter of fact, it is witnessed that terms such as "philosophy of fiqh" or "philosophy of Islamic law" are mostly used in scientific and academic studies today. However, it is clear that Islamic legal philosophy, as a new branch of science, needs to be evaluated on a broader basis in terms of its nature and scope. Muhammad Mustafawi, one of the contemporary researchers who took this fact into consideration, evaluated the philosophy of fiqh on a broader level by displaying a unique approach in his work titled "Felsefetü'l-fiqh". Accordingly, Islamic legal philosophy focuses on methodological research to be used in fiqh deductions by observing fiqh as a phenomenon from historical, social, political and cultural perspectives. While the philosophy of fiqh makes the necessary analyzes in a critical manner on the conditions surrounding the mujtahid, who is the subject of fiqh, it does not deal with the aspects of inference and inference. According to this approach, the subject of the philosophy of fiqh is the field and limit of fiqh, the effects of modernism on fiqh, the relationship of fiqh with other disciplines, the language of fiqh, the binding nature of fiqh, the problems and solutions of fiqh, and other factors that surround the jurisprudence and affect ijtihad. In this article, it is aimed to closely examine the ideas put forward by Mustafavi, who evaluates the philosophy of fiqh in a more comprehensive way, in his philosophy of fiqh, in contrast to the studies that reduce the philosophy of fiqh to the theory of maqasid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article was prepared to answer the question why loneliness is a philosophical problem. To reveal why loneliness is a philosophical problem, it is necessary to first talk about what kind of a concept loneliness is, how it is defined, and the reasons for its emergence. It is important to show what kind of concept loneliness is and to define loneliness in an intellectual context to understand its relationship with philosophy. For these reasons, in the introduction section, it is briefly mentioned what loneliness means, how it can be defined, the reasons for its emergence, and why it has a different meaning from solitude in conceptual terms. While defining loneliness in the introduction, it is also mentioned that loneliness is not only a subject of psychology and that loneliness is an interdisciplinary concept that is studied in many fields and can arise in every age. On the other hand, this concept, which is difficult to understand and define, has types created from various perspectives. In this context, to explain the relationship between loneliness and philosophy, it is necessary to talk about the types of loneliness. Therefore, in the second part of the study, ontological loneliness, which is one of the types of loneliness created from an existential perspective, was chosen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to reveal what Plato’s conception of education (paideia) is, regardless of the views of Plato’s commentators. Therefore, by directly referring to Plato’s dialogues, the educator, the educated and his views on education will be explained in outline. The article will be limited to Plato’s views on education in the dialogues, not his metaphysical thought as a whole. Plato’s conception of education differs fundamentally from other educational paradigms in that it does not involve merely transferring information to the student or endowing the student with the ability to see. Plato deals with this issue in the seventh chapter of his masterpiece known as Politeia/Republic, while describing the famous Allegory of the Cave. Accordingly, it is stated that the student already has a seeing eye, so the problem is not related to vision, but the main problem is that the student’s point of view is not facing in the right direction. According to Plato, knowledge (episteme) cannot be something acquired later because what is acquired lateris subject to change. However, what is “subject to change” cannot be knowledge of the truth or true knowledge. Therefore, Plato defends the idea that knowledge of truth must be present in the student’s memory. According to Plato, the essence of knowing is remembering (anamnesis) has been revealed accordingly. The presence of the knowledge of the truth in memory is related to the fact that the psyche (soul) possesses an awareness or innate knowledge of the truth prior to its union with a body or its incarnation. However, the human psyche has forgotten that it is aware of the truth in question. Plato describes this situation as amnesia. The whole point is to get out of the amnesia state and return to the situation before birth. Education(paideia) plays the main role in realizing or remembering the knowledge of the truth stored in the memory. Another point that should be emphasized in Plato’s understanding of education is that it is psyche that is educated, not the person. Because, according to Plato, a person or identity corresponds to a character acquired later. In this sense, since the character is also subject to change, it is the psyche that needs to be trained, not the character. In addition, the study will include the views of the Philosophy of Education, which is a sub-branch of Modern Philosophy, is examined especially within the idealist understanding of education and Plato’s views on education are analysed in this context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The debate over the unity or division of sciences is a significant topic in the history and philosophy of science. From ancient philosophers to today, scientists have attempted to unify, classify, or segment the sciences. Greek philosophers approached this issue through the concepts of “One” and “Many.” For instance, Parmenides focused on static substances, whereas Heraclitus emphasized becoming and flux. Empedocles pointed to the four elements, Democritus to atoms, Pythagoras to numbers, Plato to forms, and Aristotle to categories. In the Islamic world, Ibn Khaldun expanded the unity of sciences through social sciences, while Avicenna classified sciences based on practical and universal aspects. With the return to nature in the 16th century, sciences were reshaped through natural sciences. F. Bacon emphasized the importance of experiment and observation, categorizing sciences in a pyramid. Galileo proposed that nature is structured on mathematical symbols, while Descartes and Leibniz developed their scientific views based on Newtonian physics. Kant evaluated sciences not by searching behind phenomena but as a cognitive unity based on principles.In the modern era, positivism gained prominence. Since the 19th century, thinkers of the Vienna Circle advocated for the unity of sciences, reducing all epistemic activities to positive science. These thinkers envisaged scientific philosophy grounded in physical science. Reductionism was considered the most important method for achieving the unity of sciences. This paper will critique Fodor’s physicalism based on reductionism and defend Dupre’s idea of the disunity of sciences. Dupre argues that the reductionist method cannot be applied to special sciences like biology and that, although occasionally interacting, sciences should be considered independent modes of knowledge with their specific domains and methods. The paper will begin by presenting the historical development of the unity of sciences within the context of the philosophy of science, focusing on the views of the Vienna Circle philosophers. It will examine the thoughts of neo-positivist philosophers such as Carnap (1928, 1934) and Nagel (1961) on the unity of sciences, Hempel’s nomological-deductive explanation model (1965), and the claims of Oppenheim/Putnam (1958) regarding the unity of sciences. Subsequently, Fodor’s views on the unity of sciences will be evaluated, and physicalism based on reductionism will be analysed. After discussing the shortcomings and errors of this view, Dupre’s argument for the disunity of sciences will be examined, particularly highlighting the inapplicability of reductionism in special sciences like biology. Ultimately, it will be argued that, rather than achieving a unified science reduced to physical laws, the contemporary understanding of science is better served by recognizing the distinct and autonomous nature of different scientific fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Mevlana moves away from efforts to prove the existence of God based on the ontological, teleological and cosmological evidence used by Greek and Islamic philosophers, and relies on the methodology of reaching God based on humans, like Socrates. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to try to show the main issues of this methodology of Mevlana. In Mevlana's works, these main subjects are determined as human, faith and philosophy of love. The way to God passes through people. With Mevlana, the idea and belief that God, who is always sought outside, is in the essence, mind and heart of man, began to take hold. According to Mevlana, man's struggle is with himself and his own self. Mevlana, who says that people can reach God with peace and discipline, explains this process of struggle with the metaphor of "cauldron of love". After all, according to Mevlana, what makes a person human is the ability to think and question what is happening around him, beings and life, especially himself and his own actions. In doing this, it is necessary to trust both science and wisdom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Sinema ve felsefe bağlamına odaklanıldığında filmler, nitelikli düşünme sürecinin önemli bir formu olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Sinemanın felsefenin bazı kavram ve yöntemlerini yorumlamada güçlü yanları bulunduğu varsayımına dayanan yalın sav üzerine kurulu bu nitel çalışmada fenomenolojik yöntemin romantik bakışla kesiştiği durumlar, bir film üzerinden analiz edilmektedir. Romantik bakışın görmenin fragmanlaşmasıyla çakışan serüveni, fenomenolojinin özne-nesne ilişkisi bağlamında ele alınmaktadır. Görme engelli bir öğretmenin kendisi gibi görme engelli öğrencilere verdiği hayal kurma derslerini içeren Imagine (2012) filmi, kapsam ve sınırlılık ekseninde amaçlı örneklem tekniği ile bu çalışmanın araştırma nesnesi ve örneklemi olarak seçildi. Yapılan çözümlemeden ve analizden hareketle, kuramsal çerçeve ve ele alınan filmsel metin arasındaki ilişki ekseninde sinema ve felsefe ilişkisi içerisinde hayal âleminin bir benzerini üreten bir form olarak sinemanın felsefe yapılacak bir zemin olarak güçlü olduğu değerlendirmesini yapmak ve iddia etmek mümkündür. Dahası varlıkbilim zemininde fenomenolojik yöntemin askıya alma ve transandantal deneyim gibi tekniklerin, film-düşünme pratiğinde somutlaştırılabildiği yapılan çalışma sonucunda görülmektedir.

Ruh meselesi, İslâm ilim ve düşünce tarihinin önemli ve merkezî konularından biri olmuştur. Zira ruh, insanı oluşturan iki unsurdan birini teşkil etmektedir; insan konusu ise hiç şüphesiz İslâm medeniyetinin önemi haiz meseleleri arasında yer almış ve bu konu İslâm entelektüellerini pek meşgul etmiştir. Bu bağlamda İslâm ilim ve düşünce havzasında biri naslardan hareketle diğeri ise Antik Yunan felsefesinden esinlenerek başlıca iki ana ruh tanımı inşa edilmiştir. Kelâmcılar ruhu, “latif bir cisim” olarak telakki etmişlerdir. Filozoflar ise onu, “soyut bir cevher” şeklinde tasavvur etmişlerdir. Kelâm ve felsefe arasındaki ruha dair bu ihtilaf, sadece fiziksel anlamda münhasır kalmamıştır; eskatoloji boyuta kadar giderek asırlarca süren bir polemiğe sebep olmuştur. Klasik-sonrası İslâm düşüncesinde, birçok konuda olduğu gibi bu mesele sadedinde de felsefenin etkisi diğer geleneklerin üzerinde görülmüştür. Öyle ki mezkûr dönemde ve sonraki süreçlerde kelâmî perspektiften ele alınan ruha dair eserler, felsefî perspektifi es geçememiştir. Bu bağlamda kelâmcı perspektif, kendisiyle ihtilaf ettiği ve özellikle meselenin bir ucu eskatolojik eksene uzandığı için filozoflara karşı eleştirilerini yapmış ve onların bu yöndeki tasavvurlarının çürütülmesini önemli bulmuştur. Mezkûr dönemin, yani klasik-sonrası İslâm ilim ve düşüncesinin bariz isimlerinden biri de Mâtürîdî ve Hanefî mezheplerine mensup Ebû Muhammed Rükneddin Ubeydullah b. Muhammed b. Abdilazîz es-Semerkandî (ö. 701/1301)’dir. Semerkandî, kelâm, Kur’an ilimleri, tefsir, fıkıh, hadis ve tasavvuf gibi alanlarda pek çok eser ve risâleler kaleme almıştır. Müellifin kaleme aldığı ve günümüze kadar ulaşan eserleri/risâleleri arasında; insanî-nâtık ruha dair “Risâletü’r-rûḥ” adlı bir eseri de yer almaktadır. Eserini bir giriş ve on fasıl/bölümden oluşturan Semerkandî, bir yandan naslardan beslenerek bir diğer yandan kısmî de olsa aklî argümanlardan hareketle; kelâmî ve tasavvufî bir üslup kullanmıştır. Eser, ruh konusunu ve bu bağlamda insanın mahiyetini, ruhun tanımı ve mahiyetini, bu sadette Ehl-i Sünnet ve filozofların görüşleri arasında karşılaştırma ve filozoflara yönelik eleştiriler, eskatolojiğe dair meâd meselesi, mutasavvıfların ruha dair düşünceleri, yine müellifin hadis olarak nitelendirdiği “nefsini bilen Rabbini bilir” sözü üzerinden Allah tasavvuru ve benzeri hususları ihtiva etmektedir. Bir mütekellim olarak ve Ehl-i Sünnet çizgisinden giderek Semerkandî, söz konusu risâlesinin ana problemi “insan” denildiğinde anlaşılması gerekenin ne olduğu, ruhun mahiyeti, meâdın hangi surette gerçekleşeceği ve bu meseleler üzerinden filozoflara yönelttiği eleştiriler ekseninde dönmektedir. Araştırma ve incelemelerimiz neticesinde mezkûr risâlenin henüz tahkîk ve neşrinin yapılmadığı görülmüştür. Yine incelemelerimiz sonucunda söz konusu risâlenin iki el yazma nüshasına ulaşılmıştır. Elinizdeki bu çalışma, Semerkandî’nin Risâletü’r-rûḥ adlı eserinin tahkîkli neşri ve inceleme kısmını kapsamaktadır.

Bilim, felsefede tartışılagelen kimi sorunlara ışık tutarak onları çözüme kavuşturabilir. Felsefi birtakım sorunların çözümlenmesi bağlamında bilimin filozofa söyleyecek önemli şeyleri vardır. Bu yazı tam da bunun örneklemini teşkil eder. Örneğin Descartes, Leibniz ve Kant farazi de olsa madde ve cisme dair bazı görüşler ve öneriler ileri sürmüşlerdir. Söz konusu fikirler sonraki süreçte Faraday, Maxwell, Einstein, de Broglie ve Schrödinger gibi deneyci bilim insanları ve fizik teorisyenleri için bir çalışma zemini oluşturmuştur. Mesela Maxwell bir taslak halinde felsefe ve fiziği ilgilendiren yanlarıyla madde sorununun tarihini aktarır. Ancak o ilgili görüşlerin tarihini vermesine rağmen bu sorunun ve denenen çözümlerin etkisiyle durumun nasıl değiştiğinin tarihini vermez. Bu nokta ise özellikle felsefe ve fizik ilişkisi adına ortaya çıkan ciddi bir boşluktur. İşte bu metin tam olarak böyle bir boşluğu doldurmayı amaçlar.

Today, when plots, buildings and items in virtual universes are put up for sale, the question of whether the universes inhabited by real individuals can be produced is being debated. Many philosophers and scientists think that if technology continues to advance at its current rate, we will soon be able to produce universes similar to ours in the virtual environment. This point is the starting point of the famous simulation hypothesis. According to this theory, which many philosophers find reasonable, if we can produce virtual universes, it is highly probable that conscious beings in these universes can create their universes. But this situation also suggests the opposite: How can we be sure that we are not living in a simulation? Based on this argument, Nick Bostrom, an Oxford University philosopher, argues that we are almost certainly in a simulation. Because if most of the existing universes are simulations, it is much more likely that we are living in one of the virtual universes rather than the real one. Well, if the universe we live in is one of infinite universes and was brought into existence and designed by conscious beings in other universes, what would this mean for theism? From the perspective of classical theism, this universe was created and designed by God. For example, proponents of the cosmological argument claim that the universe had a beginning, while advocates of design proof argue that God designed this universe. Some assume that the idea that there are an infinite number of universes other than the one we live in is contrary to theism. Again, in many studies, we come across that the theory of multiverses is handled as an understanding of the universe in opposition to theism. While this study does not aim to defend the truth or falsity of the simulation hypothesis, it suggests that if this theory is assumed to be true, there will be no serious danger to theism. While doing this, the discussions in the context of the theory of multiverses and theism will be mentioned, and it will be argued that simulation universes do not contradict the existence of God.

Bu makalenin amacı Şeriati’nin Marks ve Marksizm’e bakış açısını ortaya koyarak bir değerlendirmesini yapmaktır. Şeriati’nin sol teolojisi aleyhte olmakla birlikte daima Marksizm’le ilişki içinde teşekkül etmiştir. Marksizm analizinde ve eleştirisinde muhafazakâr bir dil kullanmaktan özenle kaçınan Şeriati için Marksizm, küfür ideoloji değil, aşılması ve alt edilmesi gereken yabancı ve rakip bir ideolojidir. Şeriati’nin amacı kitleleri siyasal mücadeleye çekmek ve toplum adına mücadele eden Müslümanlar için bir çeşit siyasal kılavuz işlevi görecek olan bir dini ideoloji oluşturmaktır. Onun, Marksizm’e bakışında önemli tarihsel değişimler söz konusudur. İlk dönem çalışmalarında “üç Marks” ayrımından hareketle olumsal olan yaklaşım, zamanla daha negatif bir karakter edinir. Geç dönem çalışmalarında Marksizm yeniden değerlendirilir ve materyalist bir ideoloji olarak reddedilir. İslam-Bilim ideolojisinin dini kaynakları yeniden vurgulanarak iki ideoloji arasındaki farklılıklar keskinleştirilir. Ona göre İslam, kapitalizmle ortak ontolojik zemini paylaşan Marksizm’den temelden farklı ve bütünlüklü bir ideolojidir. Biri reddedilmeden diğeri kabul edilemez. Tevhidi esas alan İslam, radikal bir öznelliği yaratma, özgürlük ve eşitlik gibi temel ideallere ulaşma hususunda Marksizm başta olmak üzere tüm modern ideolojilerden daha üstün bir konumdadır. Avrupa merkezci bir ideoloji olan Marksizm aynı zamanda yabancılaştırıcı batılı bir ideolojidir. Sol etosu kendi sol teolojisine dahil etmekle birlikte Marksizmin ontolojik kabulleri kesin olarak reddeder. Tevhide dayanan devrimci bir dünya görüşü inşa etmeye çalışır. Bu maneviyatçı dünya görüşü adaleti, özgürlük ve eşitliği temel amaç edinir. Bireysel inanç ve zahidane yaşam bu dünya görüşünün en önemli unsurlarındadır. İslam, Müslüman toplumları kapitalizme ve emperyalizme karşı mobilize edecek, yabancılaşmaya karşı toplumun kimliğini koruyacak yegâne yapıdır. Bu nedenle yabancı ve yabancılaştırıcı ideolojiler terk etmek ve devrimci bir ideoloji olarak İslama dönmek gerekir.

Science can shed light on some of the problems discussed in philosophy and contribute to solving some philosophical issues. In this context, science has significant findings to offer to philosophers. This issue is exactly examined in this article. For example, Descartes, Leibniz and Kant put forward views and suggestions, albeit hypothetical, on issues regarding the matter and the body. These ideas subsequently formed a working ground for experimental scientists and physics theorists such as Faraday, Maxwell, Einstein, de Broglie and Schrödinger. Maxwell, for instance, outlines the history of the problem of the matter with its aspects concerning philosophy and physics. However, although he gives the history of these views, he neglects to discuss the history of how the situation changed under the influence of the problem and the attempted solutions. This issue constitutes a significant gap in understanding the relationship between philosophy and science large, and particularly the relationship between philosophy and physics. This text aims to fill exactly such a gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The matter of the soul has been one of the most important and central matters in the history of Islamic science and thought. For the soul constitutes one of the two elements that make up the human being, and the issue of the human being has undoubtedly been one of the most prominent matters in Islamic civilization and has been a major preoccupation for Islamic intellectuals. In this context, the Islamic basin of knowledge and thought has constructed two main definitions of the soul, one based on the Qur'anic teachings and the other inspired by Ancient Greek philosophy. Theologians conceived of the soul as a "subtle body". Philosophers, on the other hand, conceived it as an "abstract substance". This dispute between kalām and philosophy over the soul has not only been confined to the physical realm, but has also extended to the eschatological dimension, leading to a polemic that has lasted for centuries. As with many issues in post-classical Islamic thought, the influence of philosophy on this issue has been seen to be greater than that of other traditions. In fact, in the aforementioned period and later on, works on the soul from a theological perspective could not bypass the philosophical perspective. Within this framework, the theological perspective criticized the philosophers because they disagreed with it and especially because one end of the issue extended to the eschatological axis, and found it important to refute their conceptions in this regard. One of the most prominent figures of the aforementioned period, i.e., postclassical Islamic science and thought, was Abū Muhammad Rukn al-Dīn Ubaydallāh b. Muhammad b. 'Abd al-'Abd al-'Aziz al-Samarqandī (d. 701/1301), a member of the Māturīdī and Hanafī sects. Samarqandī wrote many works and treatises on kalām, Qur'anic sciences, tafsīr, fiqh, hadīth, and mysticism. Among the author's works/risālas/treaties that have reached the present day, there is a work titled "Risālat al-rūḥ" on the humanitarian-nātik (speaking) rational human soul (al-rūh al-nātiq al-insānī). Comprising an introduction and ten chapters, al-Samarqandī used a theological and mystical style, drawing on the teachings of the Qur'ān on the one hand, and partly on rational arguments on the other. The work includes the subject of the soul and the essence of the human being in this context, the definition and essence of the soul, the comparison between the views of the Ahl al-Sunnah and the philosophers in this regard, and the criticisms against the philosophers, the issue of ma'ād (the end) in eschatology, the thoughts of the Sufis on the soul, the perception of Allah through the saying "Whoever knows himself, knows his Lord", which the author considered as a hadith, and similar issues. As a mutakallim and following the line of Ahl al-Sunnah, the main problem of al-Samarqandī's treatise revolves around what should be understood when it comes to "human being", the nature of the soul, the manner in which ma'ād will be realized, and his criticisms of philosophers over these issues. Based on our research and studies, it has been observed that the aforementioned treatise has not yet been analyzed and published. Furthermore, two manuscript copies of the treatise in question were found as a result of our investigations. This study covers the critical edition and review of al-Samarqandī's Risālat al-rūḥ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to understand Teoman Duralı’s understanding of metaphysics, it is first necessary to grasp his understanding of philosophy and science. Duralı, in addition to examining the science of biology from a philosophical of view, introduced the concept of “philosophy-science” to the Turkish philosophical community and insisted that “philosophy and science cannot be separated from each other”. He put forward his unique way of thinking by using the concepts of philosophy and science together as “philosophy-science”. For this reason, Teoman Duralı, who thinks that philosophy cannot be without science and science cannot be without philosophy, and who is based on the idea that philosophy should be done on an accountable basis, is of the opinion that philosophy cannot be carried out independently of scientific data. Because, according to Duralı, philosophy does not deal with questions that it cannot explain. Duralı’s thoughts on the question of what philosophy-science is and what kind of changes these concepts have undergone from Aristotle to the present are extremely didactic. According to Duralı, it is the product of an effort so comprehensive that it cannot be considered one-dimensional, based on philosophy-science, logic, culture, physics and metaphysics, vitality, evolution, and morality. Duralı draws attention to the fact that the essence of philosophy and science is hidden in Aristotle’s understanding of philosophy-science. Contrary to philosophy and science, Duralı argues that metaphysics and religion can never reconcile. Since metaphysics is built with pure reason, religion has a content that cannot be proven with reason. Based on these considerations, it should not be concluded that Duralı is against religion and belief. According to Duralı, belief is a matter of feeling. In addition, it is not possible for a believer to show evidence for his belief and an unbeliever’s denial. Saying that it would be wrong to conclude that there can be no reasoning about religious belief in this respect, Duralı emphasizes that the four basic principles of the mind should be acted upon while examining religions, and tries to explain the subjects of metaphysics, religion, and morality from the past to the present through the filter of reason and logic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The method of doubt is considered a prominent aspect of philosophy in various respects. While it can be a random process closer to skepticism, it has the potential to be an organized process undertaken by an individual seeking genuine knowledge free from doubt. Methodical doubt, which rejects absolute doubt, is essential for any thinker to attain true knowledge and achieve certainty. Despite general skepticism being criticized in philosophy, the model of methodical doubt has become a prominent tool for acquiring knowledge and pursuing the path to truth. This methodology is evident in many sciences and knowledge fields reached by scientists and philosophers. In this brief exploration of the concept of doubt in philosophy, we will focus on methodical doubt, which essentially rejects other forms of doubt. To understand this methodology, we will delve into the perspective of Imām Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī, a significant scholar and philosopher of Islamic civilization in the 10th century. al-Ghazālī, a Muslim scholar, embraced the method of doubt, as reflected in his work al-Munqidh minal-ḍalāl, summarizing his experience with doubt and the journey of seeking truth. Approximately five centuries after al-Ghazālī's death, the method resurfaced with the French philosopher René Descartes, a key figure in French philosophy and its pioneers. Descartes, who also made contributions to mathematics, natural sciences, and medicine, adopted this method during the intellectual Renaissance in Europe, amid the prevalence of absolute doubt among many of his contemporaries. Descartes's use of the methodical doubt is evident in his work Discourse on the Method, resembling al-Ghazālī's style and approach to the subject. This research aims to identify the features of methodical doubt in both al-Ghazālī and Descartes, examining their approach to knowledge and the pursuit of truth. It explores their stance and opinions on traditional, rational, and sensory knowledge, in addition to the epistemic principles they considered optimal for attaining true knowledge. The analysis relies on reading and interpreting their respective works, al-Munqidh and Discourse, benefiting from their cognitive experiences in defining the features of methodical doubt and its applications for them. In conclusion, we suggest the possibility of Descartes being influenced by al-Ghazālī in this context, highlighting the similarities between their views. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The immigrant problem, one of the most striking socio-pathological events of our day, is more often raised in the context of political issues. While these debates are driven by local and political interests, what is hidden behind political calculations is the tragic position of the migrant. The migrant, who comes to the agenda with political debates, takes on an extremely negative image in terms of social relations. The problem with the sameness of "We" is that the "Other" or the immigrant, as the expression of an element that is incompatible with the local culture, is pushed from the field of "I" into otherness, and is evaluated as an element of conflict that does not force the transformation of publicity on the social level. Although the interest-based determining power of politics has negative effects on the formation of sufficient human common sense regarding the problem, there is an intense debate in the philosophical literature on the basis of Immanuel Kant, Hannah Arendt, Emmanuel Lévinas. Most of the studies put forward in the context of associating the ideas put forward by the thinkers in question with immigration have kept the research deep but limited in scope. In our study, the subject was not deemed necessary in depth, it was sufficient to discuss the basic thinkers, views and the basic dynamics of the relevant views on the subject, and care was taken to outline the relevant literature. Levinas, who stands out as one of the dynamics of the basic literature on immigration and the emphasis on "Otherness", pointed to Western thought that did not prioritize ethical relations as the cause of the political crises of his time. Levinas tries to handle the problem of Otherness, which emerges as a political, ethical and legal problem of the tension that the "I"-centered way of thinking, which brings about sameness, will experience against the "Other", in a different way from the tradition of thought that prioritizes ontology. In the thought of Levinas, who considers the “Other” as an alternative field of sameness, the transcendence dimension of Otherness has the function of removing the Self from narcissism through the discovery or tension of the alterity in the "Other" rather than the sameness of the position of the "I" against the "Others". There is a belief that the "Other", embodied in transcendent Otherness, will lead to an act of unconditional hospitality in the "I". It can be seen that Arendt also discusses the problems that Levinas puts on the agenda. In the context of "Otherness", Arendt's criticisms of the concept of right, which manifests itself with a political ontological understanding rather than an ethical relationship as expressed in Levinas, are in question. Thus, while it becomes possible to question the legal structure that does not include the “Other” in the political sphere, the importance of the "Other" for political discourse is also revealed. At this point, conditional hospitality comes to the fore in the context of foreigner's right, which we encounter in Kant. However, Derrida, who would state that Levinas's unconditional hospitality had practical problems, also found Kant's conditional hospitality problematic. The immigrant, as the “Other” of our time, which is hoped to gain an ethical-political basis of thought in the context of the idea of hospitality, aims to re-discuss the idea of hospitality developed in the existing literature, while also being a call to produce thoughts on the philosophical understanding of the immigrant and the importance of creating a philosophy of immigration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today, when plots, buildings and items in virtual universes are put up for sale, the question of whether the universes inhabited by real individuals can be produced is being debated. Many philosophers and scientists think that if technology continues to advance at its current rate, we will soon be able to produce universes similar to ours in the virtual environment. This point is the starting point of the famous simulation hypothesis. According to this theory, which many philosophers find reasonable, if we can produce virtual universes, it is highly probable that conscious beings in these universes can create their universes. But this situation also suggests the opposite: How can we be sure that we are not living in a simulation? Based on this argument, Nick Bostrom, an Oxford University philosopher, argues that we are almost certainly in a simulation. Because if most of the existing universes are simulations, it is much more likely that we are living in one of the virtual universes rather than the real one. Well, if the universe we live in is one of infinite universes and was brought into existence and designed by conscious beings in other universes, what would this mean for theism? From the perspective of classical theism, this universe was created and designed by God. For example, proponents of the cosmological argument claim that the universe had a beginning, while advocates of design proof argue that God designed this universe. Some assume that the idea that there are an infinite number of universes other than the one we live in is contrary to theism. Again, in many studies, we come across that the theory of multiverses is handled as an understanding of the universe in opposition to theism. While this study does not aim to defend the truth or falsity of the simulation hypothesis, it suggests that if this theory is assumed to be true, there will be no serious danger to theism. While doing this, the discussions in the context of the theory of multiverses and theism will be mentioned, and it will be argued that simulation universes do not contradict the existence of God. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Gazi University Journal of Gazi Educational Faculty (GUJGEF) is the property of Gazi University Journal of Gazi Educational Faculty (GUJGEF) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)