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This study investigates biological interactions and social structures within psychological frameworks in different manifestations of dominance and suppression classifying into conscious, subconscious, and unconscious mind states by looking at empirical research and theoretical models. This paper then details their mechanisms and impacts on individual and group behavior by looking into intentional, semi-intentional, and non-intentional mechanisms, respectively. This study explores the role that dominance and suppression play in forming social and biological hierarchies as well as individual psychologies, in addition to outlining the traits and outcomes of each type. The results are intended to advance knowledge of power relations in various contexts and offer new perspectives on the advantages and disadvantages of dominance and suppression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parasitoid larvae consume their hosts to obtain the nutritional resources required for their development. Parasitoid wasps can optimally select the size of their hosts by laying unfertilized and fertilized eggs according to the amount of biomass available for consumption by the larvae. However, parasitoids may eventually experience low host availability within the optimal range of body sizes, affecting the survival of their offspring. In this study, we identified a situation in which all available hosts (Leucauge volupis) were smaller than those previously observed to be parasitized by Hymenoepimecis pinheirensis at the same study site. Therefore, we investigated how these parasitoids can bypass the scarcity of ideal hosts. Female wasps biased their oviposition toward the largest L. volupis females available. In this suboptimal scenario, they did not oviposit only unfertilized eggs, which developed into relatively small offspring (males). In this situation, they lay fertilized eggs mainly on larger spiders. Larval mortality was high, but the larvae attached to the larger spiders were more likely to complete their development. In general, H. pinheirensis females managed to target the best hosts available but could not delay the oviposition of fertilized eggs or avoid offspring mortality. Here, we discuss the potential causes of asynchronies in the life cycles of parasitoid wasps and their hosts, the availability of optimal hosts, and how these factors may affect their populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The metacommunity theory enhances our understanding of how ecological processes regulate community structure. Yet, unraveling the complexities of soil nematode metacommunity structures across various spatial scales and determining the factors influencing these patterns remains challenging. Therefore, we conducted an investigation on soil nematode metacommunities spanning from north to south in the Northeastern China. Our aim was to test whether nematode metacommunities were structured by different drivers under three land covers (i.e., farmland, grassland and woodland) at the local and regional scales. The results revealed that the Clementsian, Gleasonian and their quasi‐structures of soil nematodes collectively accounted for 93% of the variation across the three land covers at the local and regional scales. These structures suggest that the soil nematode metacommunities in the Northeast China responded to fluctuations in environmental gradients. At the local scale, metacommunities were primarily shaped by biological interactions. At the regional scale, environmental heterogeneity, dispersal limitation and biological interactions all contributed to nematode metacommunities. Meanwhile, biological interactions under three land covers were represented within different trophic groups, with plant parasites predominant in farmlands and bacterivores in grasslands and woodlands. In conclusion, the metacommunity structures of soil nematodes remain stable at different spatial scales and land covers. Biological interactions are widespread among nematodes regardless of changes in spatial scales and land covers. This study reveals the importance of nematode sensitivity to the environment and biological interactions in shaping the nematode metacommunities, potentially enhancing our understanding of the spatial patterns of nematode metacommunities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prochlorococcus is the smallest and most abundant photoautotroph on Earth, contributing significantly to global CO 2 fixation. Under climate change, ocean warming and reduced nutrients are expected to benefit Prochlorococcus , increasing its distribution and global abundance. The presence of helper heterotrophic bacteria facilitates the growth and environmental adaptability of Prochlorococcus , which in turn provide organic carbon and nutrients to heterotrophic bacteria, forming mutualistic interactions that drive marine carbon cycling. The fate of Prochlorococcus is mainly controlled by two top-down drivers, including viral lysis and protist grazing. Viruses primarily recycle Prochlorococcus -fixed carbon within the microbial loop via the viral shunt, and predatory protists transfer Prochlorococcus biomass to higher trophic levels through the grazing food chain. Prochlorococcus phages inhibit carbon fixation of the infected host cells while maintaining the light reactions of photosynthesis and the pentose phosphate pathway to maximize energy and materials for nucleotide biosynthesis which is a bottleneck in phage replication. The unicellular picocyanobacterium Prochlorococcus is the most abundant photoautotroph and contributes substantially to global CO 2 fixation. In the vast euphotic zones of the open ocean, Prochlorococcus converts CO 2 into organic compounds and supports diverse organisms, forming an intricate network of interactions that regulate the magnitude of carbon cycling and storage in the ocean. An understanding of the biological interactions with Prochlorococcus is critical for accurately estimating the contributions of Prochlorococcus and interacting organisms to the marine carbon cycle. This review synthesizes the primary production contributed by Prochlorococcus in the global ocean. We outline recent progress on the interactions of Prochlorococcus with heterotrophic bacteria, phages, and grazers that multifacetedly determine Prochlorococcus carbon production and fate. We discuss that climate change might affect the biological interactions with Prochlorococcus and thus the marine carbon cycle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Root symbionts affect forage production by influencing host plant growth, but their specific effects on canopy intercepted photosynthetically active radiation (IPAR) and its conversion to plant biomass have not been investigated. Aims. We evaluated the extent to which changes in plant biomass resulting from arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and rhizobia can be explained by alterations in IPAR and aboveground and total radiation-use efficiency (RUE: the ratio between shoot or total biomass and IPAR). Methods. Under controlled greenhouse conditions, we evaluated single and dual inoculation effects of AMF and rhizobia on the forage legume white clover (Trifolium repens L.). Experimental units comprised canopies created in trays (50 cm by 34 cm by 13 cm deep). Key results. On average, AMF inoculation increased IPAR by 43%, owing to greater leaf area and density, and decreased total RUE by 30%. Aboveground RUE was lower in AMF-inoculated plants without rhizobial inoculation, despite their higher leaf phosphorus status and greenness during the vegetative and reproductive stages, respectively. Rhizobial inoculation reduced the negative effect of AMF inoculation on aboveground RUE. Conclusions. Both AMF and rhizobia alter white clover structure and function at canopy level. These variations may not be detected if the analysis considers only the impact of root symbionts on plant biomass. Implications. These findings offer valuable insights into the intricate interactions between root symbionts and canopy-level processes, providing a basis for further research at agricultural scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biological interactions and associations underlie life's processes at every level of organization. Here, we present a classroom activity that allows students to visualize and understand the connections within almost any biological system, from cell functions to ecological relationships. We recommend that instructors implement this activity to review course content and enhance students' system-thinking abilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The metacommunity theory enhances our understanding of how ecological processes regulate community structure. Yet, unraveling the complexities of soil nematode metacommunity structures across various spatial scales and determining the factors influencing these patterns remains challenging. Therefore, we conducted an investigation on soil nematode metacommunities spanning from north to south in the Northeastern China. Our aim was to test whether nematode metacommunities were structured by different drivers under three land covers (i.e., farmland, grassland and woodland) at the local and regional scales. The results revealed that the Clementsian, Gleasonian and their quasi‐structures of soil nematodes collectively accounted for 93% of the variation across the three land covers at the local and regional scales. These structures suggest that the soil nematode metacommunities in the Northeast China responded to fluctuations in environmental gradients. At the local scale, metacommunities were primarily shaped by biological interactions. At the regional scale, environmental heterogeneity, dispersal limitation and biological interactions all contributed to nematode metacommunities. Meanwhile, biological interactions under three land covers were represented within different trophic groups, with plant parasites predominant in farmlands and bacterivores in grasslands and woodlands. In conclusion, the metacommunity structures of soil nematodes remain stable at different spatial scales and land covers. Biological interactions are widespread among nematodes regardless of changes in spatial scales and land covers. This study reveals the importance of nematode sensitivity to the environment and biological interactions in shaping the nematode metacommunities, potentially enhancing our understanding of the spatial patterns of nematode metacommunities.

Abstract Leafcutter ants are among the most important agricultural and forest pests in the Neotropical region, given that they use plant matter as substrate for the growth of their mutualist fungus Leucoagaricus gongylophorus. Plant-based insecticides and fungicides have shown potential for controlling these ants. The present study assessed the hydroalcoholic extract activity of four fern fronds (dry and rainy periods) on the mutualist fungus of leafcutter ants. Fungal mycelium suspensions were seeded on the surface of tubes containing fern extracts at a concentration of 5 mg/mL and 100 μg/mL. The chemical profile of the extracts was analyzed by thin layer chromatography (TLC). Extracts (dry period) at a concentration of 5 mg/mL inhibited the growth of the fungus: Macrothelypteris torresiana and Dicksonia sellowiana (less than 20%), Niphidium crassifolium (approximately 40%), Parapolystichum effusum extract (100%). None of the extracts (dry and rainy periods) inhibited fungal growth at a concentration of 100 μg/mL. The chemical profile analysis of the extracts indicated the presence of beta-sitosterol, friedelinol, rutin, and kaempferol. The crude extracts of P. effusum and N. crassifolium were the most promising in future formulations of antifungal products. Thus, ferns are potential plants in the search for environmentally-friendly substances for sustainable agriculture.

Abstract Introduction Protists are unicellular eukaryotes including important predators, parasites and phototrophs, and play pivotal roles in organic matter decomposition, biogeochemical nutrient cycling and various ecosystem functions. Unravelling the impact of climate warming on soil protists is paramount in predicting how these microorganisms will continue to provide essential ecosystem services in the face of changing climatic conditions. Materials and Methods We examined the effects of 5‐year simulated climate warming scenario, with temperatures increased by 4°C above ambient levels, on the diversity and community composition of soil protists, as well as their interactions with other microorganisms in both natural and plantation forest ecosystems during three seasons: summer, autumn and winter. Results We found a season‐dependent response of protists to climate warming, with a significant decrease in protist diversity during winter in natural forests. Furthermore, we identified significant alterations in the community compositions of protists during summer in both natural and plantation forests, as well as during winter in both forest types, under warming. Our analysis pinpointed specific functional protist taxa, such as consumers, parasites and phototrophs, which exhibited significant shifts in their relative abundances under warming. Additionally, we found that warming facilitated trophic interactions between protists and bacteria, while also strengthening interactions between bacterial and fungal communities. Warming could induce direct modifications in protist community compositions or indirectly affect them by modifying bacterial and fungal communities, as revealed by structural equation modelling. Conclusion These findings demonstrate the substantial impact of warming on the taxonomic and functional compositions of protists in forest ecosystems, with the magnitude of these effects varying across seasons. Our study implicates that ongoing climate warming could have significant consequences for the profiles of soil protists, as well as their trophic interactions with bacteria and fungi, highlighting the importance of considering these effects for the sustainable provision of ecosystem functions.

Fungal alcohol dehydrogenases (ADHs) participate in growth under aerobic or anaerobic conditions, morphogenetic processes, and pathogenesis of diverse fungal genera. These processes are associated with metabolic operation routes related to alcohol, aldehyde, and acid production. The number of ADH enzymes, their metabolic roles, and their functions vary within fungal species. The most studied ADHs are associated with ethanol metabolism, either as fermentative enzymes involved in the production of this alcohol or as oxidative enzymes necessary for the use of ethanol as a carbon source; other enzymes participate in survival under microaerobic conditions. The fast generation of data using genome sequencing provides an excellent opportunity to determine a correlation between the number of ADHs and fungal lifestyle. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the latest knowledge about the importance of ADH enzymes in the physiology and metabolism of fungal cells, as well as their structure, regulation, evolutionary relationships, and biotechnological potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study is to examine the influence of the variation of the intrinsic impedance on the phase of a Gaussian pulse during propagation through a biological tissue. This paper describes a method for varying the intrinsic impedance while retaining the characteristics of the propagation medium. The propagation medium is considered as the superposition of four semi-infinite layers each characterized by their thickness, their conductivity, and their dielectric constant. These last parameters, on which the intrinsic impedance depends, are functions of the pulsation of the medium. In this work, we will test the continuity of the phase shift of the signal at the level of interfaces of biological layers with respect to that of the starting point as the function of the excitation pulsation. Next, we are going to vary the intrinsic. Next, we examine the influence of the variation of the intrinsic impedance at the interface on the phase shift of the signal at that level. We will adopt the Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) method to simulate the propagation of a Gaussian pulse. This method which is validated in previous work showed robustness to obtained signals very close to the reality at the interfaces. For these two tests, we will notice that the variation of intrinsic impedance has no influence on the variation of the phase at the interfaces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phytoparasitic nematodes are a common problem in coffee production worldwide. In Peru, the proliferation of phytoparasitic nematodes in Coffea arabica L. var. Typica has negative impacts on coffee production and huge economic losses. The objective of this study was to determine the ecological interactions that influence the proliferation of phytoparasitic nematodes in C. arabica var. Typica in Quillabamba, Cusco, Peru. The density of phytoparasitic nematodes in the soil and root was evaluated using the modified Baermann channel method. Identification of genera and species of phytoparasitic nematodes was carried out in the different samples, based on descriptions and taxonomic keys. Physical and chemical parameters of the soil were evaluated. Principal component analysis (PCA) and a correlation network were employed to distribute the different species of nematodes. The variables soil texture, organic matter, pH, altitude, temperature and humidity were used. During the sampling, several genera of plant-parasitic nematodes were identified in addition to various categories of nematodes. Meloidogyne exigua, Pratylenchus coffeae, Allotrichodorus longispiculis and Helicotylenchus longicaudatus are among the specific species of nematodes identified. The genus with the highest incidence was Meloidogyne spp. with 77.3% in soil and 96% in roots, reaching an average density of 340 nematodes in 100 g of soil and 368 nematodes in 1 g of roots. The PCA results show that 63.7% of the variability of the data is retained in the first two components. PCA shows that the sampled areas were differentiated and grouped with the evaluated characteristics, while the nematodes overlap in the representation of the analysis, thus making it difficult to select them. Pearson's correlation showed a negative correlation between altitude and soil nematode density (−0.22), suggesting that conditions at higher altitudes may be more unfavorable for nematode growth. In addition, a positive correlation was found between soil pH and organic matter (0.93, p < 0.001) and may influence nematode density. The factors that influence the density of nematodes in the soil and plant roots are multiple and complex, and their understanding is essential for the success of coffee production. The finding of the current study may be useful in the development of sustainable strategies for managing nematodes in coffee network production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grapevine trunk diseases (GTDs) are currently among the most important health challenges for viticulture in the world. Esca, Botryosphaeria dieback, and Eutypa dieback are the most current GTDs caused by fungi in mature vineyards. Their incidence has increased over the last two decades, mainly after the ban of sodium arsenate, carbendazim, and benomyl in the early 2000s. Since then, considerable efforts have been made to find alternative approaches to manage these diseases and limit their propagation. Biocontrol is a sustainable approach to fight against GTD-associated fungi and several microbiological control agents have been tested against at least one of the pathogens involved in these diseases. In this review, we provide an overview of the pathogens responsible, the various potential biocontrol microorganisms selected and used, and their origins, mechanisms of action, and efficiency in various experiments carried out in vitro, in greenhouses, and/or in vineyards. Lastly, we discuss the advantages and limitations of these approaches to protect grapevines against GTDs, as well as the future perspectives for their improvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: To assess the abiotic correlations between indicator species and others in the community. Additionally, we evaluated the importance of environmental variables in driving the co‐occurrence patterns of the coexisting riparian bird species within a threatened aquatic and terrestrial system. Location: Seven classic submontane rivers in riparian ecosystems of the Changbai Mountains in eastern Jilin Province, China, elevation ranging from 351 to 942 m. Methods: Joint species distribution models (JSDMs) were applied to examine the relative importance of abiotic and potential species associations driving the abundance and cooccurrence of bird species along submontane riparian zones. The abiotic factors were examined with a focus on the scaly‐sided Merganser and the coexisting bird species potentially sharing or interacting within the same niche. Results: We found that the co‐occurrence patterns of submontane riparian bird species were dominantly driven by numerous positive correlations when incorporating abiotic variables. The scaly‐sided Merganser exhibited the greatest number of correlations with other species and exhibited significant responses to most of the measured environmental variables. Land cover diversity, proportion of gravel bars, and channel width were the most common environmental factors affecting riparian bird species distribution. Conclusions: Using JSDM, we found that the indicator roles of the scaly‐sided Merganser are mainly derived from shared environmental responses with coexisting riparian bird species; moreover, the composition of submontane riparian bird communities is affected by both environmental variables and potential species associations. Our results verified the central role of the scaly‐sided Merganser as an indicator species in submontane riparian ecosystems due to their strict physical environment preferences and extensive connections with other sympatric riparian bird species, primarily through shared environmental intersections. Our results emphasize the crucial necessity for simultaneously considering environmental predictors and potential species associations in modelling species distributions and to better realizing the roles of indicators in practical applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

IntroductionBiotic interactions are a crucial component of the plant regeneration process, which has been traditionally studied at more local scales, providing the tools for planning and decision-making. Studies showing the signature of species interactions at coarser spatial scales contrasting with animal-plant interactions at fine scales have been scarce. This study aimed at integrating an approach, over both biogeographic and local scales, by testing two endemic species of Mediterranean central Chile: the relict and southernmost threatened Chilean palm Jubaea chilensis (Chilean palm; Molina; Baillón) and the caviomorph scatter-hoarding rodent Octodon degus (Degu; Molina), on which this palm currently relies for seed dispersal.MethodsIntegrating Geographic Information Systems and Ecological Niche Modeling, the intensity of seed-rodent interactions from a territorial perspective was evaluated in the range of the palm, at a biogeographic scale, identifying areas with greater or lesser potential for seed-rodent interactions; and in local populations, incorporating a variety of environmental factors that might affect palm regeneration.ResultsThe present results show that the rodent (Octodon degus) may play a role in Chilean palm (Jubaea chilensis) seed dispersal and seed establishment, since; Chilean palm regeneration is higher in areas where both species co-occur. At a local scale, a prominent overlap between palm seedlings and degu burrows was also found, which, allied with other abiotic variables such as altitude and topographic humidity, are crucial for successful palm regeneration.DiscussionUnderstanding the full extent of animal-plant interactions and how they are affected by habitat perturbation in a wide range will provide essential information for the design of effective conservation and management strategies, such as rewilding based on plant species.

The presence of biofouling communities in very large densities in offshore wind farms (OWFs) generates broad effects on the structure and functioning of the marine ecosystem, yet the mechanisms behind the temporal development of these communities remain poorly understood. Here, we use an 11-year series on biofouling fauna from OWFs installed in Belgian waters to determine succession patterns and to unravel the role of biological interactions in shaping community development. Our analysis shows that biological interactions, besides age and location, affect diversity patterns in OWFs. The abundance of foundation species, predators, and space occupiers was significantly related to richness and/or diversity. The trends in richness, diversity, and community composition suggest that no permanent stable climax is reached after 11 years, which can be linked to the dynamic and disturbance-prone environment of offshore fouling communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fungal alcohol dehydrogenases (ADHs) participate in growth under aerobic or anaerobic conditions, morphogenetic processes, and pathogenesis of diverse fungal genera. These processes are associated with metabolic operation routes related to alcohol, aldehyde, and acid production. The number of ADH enzymes, their metabolic roles, and their functions vary within fungal species. The most studied ADHs are associated with ethanol metabolism, either as fermentative enzymes involved in the production of this alcohol or as oxidative enzymes necessary for the use of ethanol as a carbon source; other enzymes participate in survival under microaerobic conditions. The fast generation of data using genome sequencing provides an excellent opportunity to determine a correlation between the number of ADHs and fungal lifestyle. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the latest knowledge about the importance of ADH enzymes in the physiology and metabolism of fungal cells, as well as their structure, regulation, evolutionary relationships, and biotechnological potential.

Background: The present study aimed to determine whether the polymorphisms of the 11q23.3 locus affect the risk and mortality of coronary artery disease in 5-year and 10-year observations. Methods: The study group consisted of 519 subjects: 276 patients with CAD and 243 blood donors as controls. The genotyping of polymorphisms (rs10750097, rs3741298, and rs1729410) was performed using the TaqMan-PCR method. Survival was defined as the period from the angiographic confirmation of CAD to cardiovascular death, and the endpoint was defined as death from cardiovascular causes. Results: The G allele of the rs1729410 polymorphism increased the risk of CAD (OR = 1.55, p = 0.04) and showed a synergistic correlation with overweight/obesity (additive synergy index (SI) = 11.01, p < 0.001). The carriers of the GG genotype and over-normative LDL levels increased the risk of CAD by over 12-fold higher than expected (multiplicative synergy index (SIM) = 12.34, p < 0.001). In the case of the rs10750097 variant, an effect on mortality was shown in both 5-year and 10-year periods. Conclusion: The results revealed that the rs1729410 polymorphism increases the risk of CAD in synergy with traditional risk factors, and the rs10750097 polymorphism of the 11q23.3 locus affects the risk of death in patients with CAD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large interactive displays are widely used in industrial scenarios to enhance ubiquitous and seamless human–machine interactions. However, few studies have paid attention to design implicit interaction that users can directly manipulate physical circumstance without touch or specific gesture. This article proposes ReflectU, a novel reflection-based approach that leverages mirror reflection for a natural and implicit interactive method for remote control, i.e., user will be able to directly interact with physical circumstance just via the reflection of their bare hands. We compare its performance with that of other two generally known devices: Wii Remoter and Microsoft Kinect. Moreover, performance metrics of ReflectU are evaluated in real-life scenarios and provide evidence in convincing performance in both the tasks requiring instant targeting and trajectory control. Furthermore, ReflectU is reported by users to be the most intuitive and satisfactory approach among all three candidates in user studies. Future industrial applications of the reflection-base mirror approach are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This supports not only the existence of a trade-off between growth/reproduction and defence to herbivory without the participation of the plant endophytes, but also that the trade-off persists, at least in this species, in symbiotic (E+) plants (Fig. From these studies, we assume that the experimental design (E+ and E- plants) effectively disrupts any potential positive effect of the plant-microbe symbiosis in E- plants. Keywords: biological interactions; extreme environments; fungal endophytes; symbiosis; trade-off EN biological interactions extreme environments fungal endophytes symbiosis trade-off 384 387 4 06/20/22 20220715 NES 220715 Acknowledgements Our thanks to Marc-André Selosse for his constructive comments that allowed us to focus and highlight the fundamental aspects of our I Letter i . Fungal endophytes improve the performance of host plants but do not eliminate the growth/defence trade-off. [Extracted from the article]

Decomposers are an essential component in any ecosystem and excrement represents one of the most abundant resources. Dung beetles and mites are important taxa in this microhabitat and interact in complex ways. Usually, a phoretic association is assumed, with mites merely being transported by beetles, but the extent of this relationship is poorly understood. We performed a comprehensive literature search and identified 245 relevant articles from which we recognised three major forms of symbiosis: i) commensalism, constituting phoresy with no cost to the host, ii) parasitism, in which predation, competition, or antagonism feature to the detriment of one partner, and iii) mutualism, in which both beetle and mite derive benefit. We examine the evidence for commensal phoresy, negative effects (parasitism, predation, or competition), and mutualism. Further, we identify as research priorities the exploration of ecological succession and seasonal dynamics, the effect of introduced mite species on ecosystem services, and co-evolution. In conclusion, the association and potential success of a hypothetical “phoresy” between mites and dung beetles depend on several variables that need to be evaluated. Finally, there is a lack of empirical data regarding dung beetle-mite interactions, with a large knowledge gap in several aspects, mainly because phoresy remains understudied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The application of gold nanoparticles in the biomedical field has been widely explored in the last decades owing to their high biocompatibility, easy functionalization, and their structurally highly dependent optical properties. Among the different types of gold-based nanostructures, gold nanoshells (GNSs) are a particularly interesting option due to their complex dual structure, which allows the integration of several functionalities and a wide tunability of their optical response. Despite the remarkable progress made for the design of GNSs with the optimal characteristics for the intended application, the development of nanosystems that display the desired functionalities and preserve them in biological environments while showing effective targeting capability is still a challenge. In this review, the different synthetic routes proposed for the design of GNSs, their most remarkable optical properties, and the most relevant concerns associated with their interaction with biological systems are discussed. The application of these nanostructures for different diagnostic and/or therapeutic purposes is also reviewed. Finally, major remaining barriers to the clinical translation of GNSs and potential future directions of research in this field are critically commented. [Display omitted] • GNSs with different shapes, geometries, and structures have been designed. • The optical properties of GNSs can be tuned within a broad range in the NIR biological windows. • GNSs are efficient drug nanocarriers and excellent photothermal therapeutic agents. • GNSs display outstanding biosensing and bioimaging capabilities. • Preliminary clinical assays showed the potential of GNSs as safety theragnostic tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phytoparasitic nematodes are a common problem in coffee production worldwide. In Peru, the proliferation of phytoparasitic nematodes in Coffea arabica L. var. Typica has negative impacts on coffee production and huge economic losses. The objective of this study was to determine the ecological interactions that influence the proliferation of phytoparasitic nematodes in C. arabica var. Typica in Quillabamba, Cusco, Peru. The density of phytoparasitic nematodes in the soil and root was evaluated using the modified Baermann channel method. Identification of genera and species of phytoparasitic nematodes was carried out in the different samples, based on descriptions and taxonomic keys. Physical and chemical parameters of the soil were evaluated. Principal component analysis (PCA) and a correlation network were employed to distribute the different species of nematodes. The variables soil texture, organic matter, pH, altitude, temperature and humidity were used. During the sampling, several genera of plant-parasitic nematodes were identified in addition to various categories of nematodes. Meloidogyne exigua, Pratylenchus coffeae, Allotrichodorus longispiculis and Helicotylenchus longicaudatus are among the specific species of nematodes identified. The genus with the highest incidence was Meloidogyne spp. with 77.3% in soil and 96% in roots, reaching an average density of 340 nematodes in 100 g of soil and 368 nematodes in 1 g of roots. The PCA results show that 63.7% of the variability of the data is retained in the first two components. PCA shows that the sampled areas were differentiated and grouped with the evaluated characteristics, while the nematodes overlap in the representation of the analysis, thus making it difficult to select them. Pearson’s correlation showed a negative correlation between altitude and soil nematode density (−0.22), suggesting that conditions at higher altitudes may be more unfavorable for nematode growth. In addition, a positive correlation was found between soil pH and organic matter (0.93, p < 0.001) and may influence nematode density. The factors that influence the density of nematodes in the soil and plant roots are multiple and complex, and their understanding is essential for the success of coffee production. The finding of the current study may be useful in the development of sustainable strategies for managing nematodes in coffee network production.

Grapevine trunk diseases (GTDs) are currently among the most important health challenges for viticulture in the world. Esca, Botryosphaeria dieback, and Eutypa dieback are the most current GTDs caused by fungi in mature vineyards. Their incidence has increased over the last two decades, mainly after the ban of sodium arsenate, carbendazim, and benomyl in the early 2000s. Since then, considerable efforts have been made to find alternative approaches to manage these diseases and limit their propagation. Biocontrol is a sustainable approach to fight against GTD-associated fungi and several microbiological control agents have been tested against at least one of the pathogens involved in these diseases. In this review, we provide an overview of the pathogens responsible, the various potential biocontrol microorganisms selected and used, and their origins, mechanisms of action, and efficiency in various experiments carried out in vitro, in greenhouses, and/or in vineyards. Lastly, we discuss the advantages and limitations of these approaches to protect grapevines against GTDs, as well as the future perspectives for their improvement.

In this paper, we demonstrate biocompatible micromachined buckled membranes for the operation in liquids. The membranes feature diameters between 600 and 800 $\mu \text{m}$ as well as integrated piezoelectric thin film actuators, thus enabling switching between the bistable states. The membrane material is known to be not biocompatible, hence a hydrogenated amorphous silicon carbide (a-SiC:H) layer is deposited on the surface. For demonstration purposes, a 70 nm ±3 nm thin a-SiC:H coating with a specific silicon to carbon ratio was chosen, with a negligible impact on the overall switching performance of the bistable membranes. Furthermore, a relation between the membrane center velocity at the first characteristic resonance frequency and the switching ability of a membrane in different viscous fluids is shown. Based on a small signal analysis the switching behavior can be predicted. The membranes were successfully switched in liquids with a dynamic viscosity up to 286 mPa $\cdot \text{s}$. The biocompatibility of the membranes was examined by growing Caco-2 cells, a human carcinoma cell line, on a-SiC:H thin films, featuring different carbon contents and organic surface treatments. The proliferation and adhesion of the cells on the substrates are examined in an empirical cell growth and removal study. Only a-SiC:H surfaces pre-treated with an O2-plasma and coated with Collagen Type I indicated to provide an environment of improved cell adhesiveness compared to other surface treatments. The biological investigations resulted in good cell proliferation, that also depends on the altered hydrophilicity of the surface, as well as on the carbon content of the a-SiC:H thin films. This study reveals that a broad range of biocompatible a-SiC:H surfaces can be prepared, whereby the cell growth can be tailored in terms of proliferation and adhesion for different biomedical application scenarios. Finally, this paper reports on the mechanical features of bistable, buckled membranes and their suitability as a growth substrate for human cell cultures, due to the good biocompatibility of a-SiC:H thin films. We therefore suggest that it will be feasible to grow cells on bistable MEMS membranes, enabling cell experiments in liquid medical environments, with both mechanically excitable and biocompatible surfaces. [2022-0006] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In screenhouses, foliar and soil applications of induced resistance (IR), nutrient deterrence (ND), and soil amendment (SAM) treatments to canola, Brassica napus L., reduced fitness in an aphid pest, Brevicoryne brassicae L. Effects of different combinations and doses of IR, ND, and SAM on aphids were compared with those of labeled doses of Carbosulfan and a control. Dose differences between treatments and the control were found for several measures of B. brassicae fitness, including Kaplan–Meier functions, reproduction time, effective fecundity (Md), intrinsic rates of natural increase (rm), relative growth rate (RGR), and generation time. Progeny, development/pre-reproductive period, and percent progeny nymph survival were also significantly different from the control. Carbosulfan was the most rapidly acting treatment; however, 1 mM salicylic acid (SA) produced statistically significant reductions in aphid fitness compared to the control, followed by 1 mM citric acid (CA), 0.5 mM SA, and 0.5 mM CA. Silicon (Si) at 50 kg/ha was the most effective ND approach. Ammonium sulfate (AS) only decreased fitness at 25 kg/ha. The SAM combinations of both elemental sulfur (ES) and bio-sulfur (BS) treatments with compost (Cp) also yielded statistically significant aphid fitness reductions. These results provide context for future exploration of IR, ND, and SAM approaches to improve canola yield and reduce aphid damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Cell coverings can be observed in all major groups of organisms, which include animals, plants, fungi, protists and prokaryotes. They play a key role in assuring cell survival or adaptation to certain environmental conditions. Since the term algae refers to a polyphyletic and very artificial group, the cell coverings of these organisms are very diverse in molecular composition and with different arrangements. Differences have taxonomic value since they allow microalgae phyla or even minor taxonomic groups, such as classes, orders or families, to be distinguished. Understanding the structure of cell coverings is also fundamental for the use of microalgae to obtain products of commercial value. Despite its importance, the composition and architecture of microalgae coverings is still poorly understood, especially considering the great diversity of organisms. Diatom frustules are the most studied coverings due their uses in areas of bio- and nanotechnology. There is a lack of information about the cell wall, lorica, periplast, amphiesma and scales. This study is a review with the aim of synthesizing literature information on microalgae cell coverings to describe their compositions, arrangements, functions and industrial uses.

ABSTRACT Acrostichum danaeifolium, a Neotropical fern, occurs preferentially in marshy areas or at the margins of lakes and mangroves. Microlepidoptera larvae burrow through the petioles of the fern, preferentially on the non-expanded leaves. The galleries in the petiole create a new microhabitat, harboring a rich fauna of arthropods. The aim of the present study was to assess the richness of ants associated with its petiole. The study was conducted in a population of A. danaefolium from the Atlantic Forest in Rio de Janeiro state, Southeastern Brazil. Six collections were carried out every two months (2009-2010), three in the dry and three in the rainy season. The leaves were divided into three development stages: non-expanded leaves (NEL), expanded leaves (EL) and senescent leaves (SL). Seven leaves from each phase were randomly collected from seven individuals. A total of fifteen ant species were recorded. The species with the highest frequency and density in fern petioles were Camponotus crassus and Crematogaster curvispinosa. The highest ant richness and abundance was found in senescent leaves. The high number of ants found in the petioles of Acrostichum danaefolium qualifies it as a potential key species in the marshes and flooded areas where it occurs.

The presence of biofouling communities in very large densities in offshore wind farms (OWFs) generates broad effects on the structure and functioning of the marine ecosystem, yet the mechanisms behind the temporal development of these communities remain poorly understood. Here, we use an 11-year series on biofouling fauna from OWFs installed in Belgian waters to determine succession patterns and to unravel the role of biological interactions in shaping community development. Our analysis shows that biological interactions, besides age and location, affect diversity patterns in OWFs. The abundance of foundation species, predators, and space occupiers was significantly related to richness and/or diversity. The trends in richness, diversity, and community composition suggest that no permanent stable climax is reached after 11 years, which can be linked to the dynamic and disturbance-prone environment of offshore fouling communities.

Antagonistic interactions are widespread in the microbial world and affect microbial evolutionary dynamics. Natural microbial communities often display spatial structure, which affects biological interactions, but much of what we know about microbial antagonism comes from laboratory studies of well-mixed communities. To overcome this limitation, we manipulated two killer strains of the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, expressing different toxins, to independently control the rate at which they released their toxins. We developed mathematical models that predict the experimental dynamics of competition between toxin-producing strains in both well-mixed and spatially structured populations. In both situations, we experimentally verified theory’s prediction that a stronger antagonist can invade a weaker one only if the initial invading population exceeds a critical frequency or size. Finally, we found that toxin-resistant cells and weaker killers arose in spatially structured competitions between toxin-producing strains, suggesting that adaptive evolution can affect the outcome of microbial antagonism in spatial settings.

Plant–insect interactions are basic components of biodiversity conservation. To attain the international Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the interactions in urban and in suburban systems should be better understood to maintain the health of green infrastructure. The role of ground-level ozone (O3) as an environmental stress disrupting interaction webs is presented. Ozone mixing ratios in suburbs are usually higher than in the center of cities and may reduce photosynthetic productivity at a relatively higher degree. Consequently, carbon-based defense capacities of plants may be suppressed by elevated O3 more in the suburbs. However, contrary to this expectation, grazing damages by leaf beetles have been severe in some urban centers in comparison with the suburbs. To explain differences in grazing damages between urban areas and suburbs, the disruption of atmospheric communication signals by elevated O3 via changes in plant-regulated biogenic volatile organic compounds and long-chain fatty acids are considered. The ecological roles of plant volatiles and the effects of O3 from both a chemical and a biological perspective are presented. Ozone-disrupted plant volatiles should be considered to explain herbivory phenomena in urban and suburban systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) are two pollutants in soil, especially ARGs as one of the top three threats to human health. The performance of soil microbial fuel cells (MFCs) fuelled with antibiotics was investigated. Results In this study, soil MFCs spiked with tetracycline exhibited optimal bioelectricity generation, which was 25% and 733% higher than those of MFCs spiked with sulfadiazine and control, respectively. Compared with the non-electrode treatment, not only did functional micro-organisms change in open- and closed-circuit treatments, but also the microbial affinities, respectively, increased by 50% and 340% to adapt to higher removal of antibiotics. For the open-circuit treatment, the ineffective interspecific relation of micro-organisms was reduced to assist the removal efficiency of antibiotics by 7–27%. For the closed-circuit treatment, an intensive metabolic network capable of bioelectricity generation, degradation and nitrogen transformation was established, which led to 10–35% higher removal of antibiotics. Importantly, the abundances of ARGs and mobile genetic element (MGE) genes decreased after the introduction of electrodes; especially in the closed-circuit treatment, the highest reduction of 47% and 53% was observed, respectively. Conclusions Soil MFCs possess advantages for the elimination of antibiotics and ARGs with sevenfold to eightfold higher electricity generation than that of the control treatment. Compared with sulphonamides, the enhancement removal of tetracycline is higher, while both potential ARG propagation risk is reduced in soil MFCs. This study firstly synchronously reveals the relationships among bacteria, fungi and archaea and with ARGs and MGE genes in soil bioelectrochemical systems.

Microbe-RNAs (miRNAs) play an important role and are associated with human diseases. However, considering the high cost and time-consuming biological experiments, using effective computational methods to discover the underlying association between the miRNAs and diseases would be valuable. This study presents a novel computational prediction model based on multiple-similarity and arbitrarily-order proximity network embedding. We obtain the Gaussian similarity from the disease-miRNA interaction matrix for the miRNA and disease. Then, considering the Gaussian similarity, disease semantic, phenotype similarity, and the miRNA functional similarity, we compute the miRNA-miRNA similarity matrix and the disease-disease similarity matrix. Most importantly, we improved the SVD matrix decomposition to extract the primary feature vector. We called it arbitrarily-order proximity network embedding method. By multiplying the feature vectors together, we calculate the final miRNA-disease association score matrix. According to the ranking scores, we can know which miRNA is mostly relevant to a disease. This process proved that our method achieved better prediction performance than other methods. In the experiment, after adding arbitrarily-order proximity network embedding to the inductive matrix completion method [1], the AUC of our method in leave-one-out cross-validation increased dramatically from 0.8034 to 0.92306. Meanwhile, the studies of three cases, namely, prostate neoplasms, breast neoplasms, and lung neoplasms, of the top 50 potential miRNAs predicted by our method were validated by the database of dbDEMC and mir2disease. This finding indicated that our method can effectively obtain the potential disease miRNA candidates. Comparison of our work with other algorithms reveals its reliable performance.

In screenhouses, foliar and soil applications of induced resistance (IR), nutrient deterrence (ND), and soil amendment (SAM) treatments to canola, Brassica napus L., reduced fitness in an aphid pest, Brevicoryne brassicae L. Effects of different combinations and doses of IR, ND, and SAM on aphids were compared with those of labeled doses of Carbosulfan and a control. Dose differences between treatments and the control were found for several measures of B. brassicae fitness, including Kaplan–Meier functions, reproduction time, effective fecundity (Md), intrinsic rates of natural increase (rm), relative growth rate (RGR), and generation time. Progeny, development/pre-reproductive period, and percent progeny nymph survival were also significantly different from the control. Carbosulfan was the most rapidly acting treatment; however, 1 mM salicylic acid (SA) produced statistically significant reductions in aphid fitness compared to the control, followed by 1 mM citric acid (CA), 0.5 mM SA, and 0.5 mM CA. Silicon (Si) at 50 kg/ha was the most effective ND approach. Ammonium sulfate (AS) only decreased fitness at 25 kg/ha. The SAM combinations of both elemental sulfur (ES) and bio-sulfur (BS) treatments with compost (Cp) also yielded statistically significant aphid fitness reductions. These results provide context for future exploration of IR, ND, and SAM approaches to improve canola yield and reduce aphid damage.

Bird nests are specialized structures that act as microrefuge and a source of food for arthropods. Nest arthropod richness and composition may vary according to the nest builder, geographical location and nest size. Because information on nest arthropods is scarce, there are even fewer studies on the drivers of nest arthropod diversity. We characterized arthropod diversity in cup- and dome-shaped nests along a 130 km latitudinal gradient in the mediterranean-type region of Central Chile and, we assessed whether nest dimensions and climatic factors explain richness (alpha-diversity). Then, we evaluated whether climatic differences between sites explain arthropod nest composition (beta-diversity). All collected nests hosted at least one arthropod specimen. We identified 43 taxonomic entities (4.2 entities per nest ± 0.5, mean ± SE, n = 27 nests) belonging to 18 orders and five classes: Arachnida, Diplopoda, Entognatha, Insecta and Malacostraca. We observed differences in nest arthropod richness and composition related to sites but not bird species. Larger nests supported greater arthropod richness. Furthermore, we observed that climatic differences explain the variation in arthropod composition between sites. Nests in the northern region (drier and warmer) mainly hosted Hemipterans and Hymenopterans. Contrary, nests in the southern region (humid and colder) hosted species of Collembola, Dermaptera, and Diplopoda. Positive relationship between nests surface area with arthropod richness suggests us that larger nests may keep more resources. Our study sheds light on a crucial interaction which may have potential consequences for insect assemblage composition and bird reproductive biology.

Mutualisms play a critical role in ecological communities; however, the importance and prevalence of mutualistic associations can be modified by external stressors. On coral reefs, elevated sediment deposition can be a major stressor reducing the health of corals and reef resilience. Here, we investigated the influence of severe sedimentation on the mutualistic relationship between small damselfishes (Pomacentrus moluccensis and Dascyllus aruanus) and their coral host (Pocillopora damicornis). In an aquarium experiment, corals were exposed to sedimentation rates of approximately 100 mg cm−2 d−1, with and without fishes present, to test whether: (i) fishes influence the accumulation of sediments on coral hosts, and (ii) fishes moderate partial colony mortality and/or coral tissue condition. Colonies with fishes accumulated much less sediment compared with colonies without fishes, and this effect was strongest for colonies with D. aruanus (fivefold less sediment than controls) as opposed to P. moluccensis (twofold less sediment than controls). Colonies with symbiont fishes also had up to 10-fold less sediment-induced partial mortality, as well as higher chlorophyll and protein concentrations. These results demonstrate that fish mutualisms vary in the strength of their benefits, and indicate that some mutualistic or facilitative interactions might become more important for species health and resilience at high-stress levels.

The detection of small concentrations of cancer cells before cancer takes over the primary organ completely, or metastasizes to other areas of the body is important for early screening of cancer. One approach to address cancer early screening is through cell ion exchange bioelectricity, which characterizes voltage potential in non-neuronal cells to regulate shape changing, proliferation, differentiation, migration, and cancer formation. Herein, novel ion-sensitive field-effective transistor (ISFET) modality is shown to measure cell behavior during the change of cell properties at molecular levels. ISFETs produce low resistance signals and consume low power. The small size of ISFETs enables miniature diagnosis devices that can be affordably fabricated in a massive array format. A large number of cells can be measured in parallel. Therefore, ISFET allows the combination of low sample requirements and prompt response. ISFETs have the ability to measure the effect of ions from complex biological samples and can be used as affordable point of care devices.

Rocky shore ecology has been studied for a long time, starting with qualitative descriptions and becoming more quantitative and experimental over time. Some of the earliest manipulative experimental ecological studies were undertaken on rocky shores. Many, over time, have made considerable contributions to ecological theory, especially highlighting the importance of biological interactions at the community level. The suitability of rocky shores as convenient test systems for ecological experimentation is outlined. Here we consider contributions from rocky shores to the emerging concepts of supply-side ecology, the roles of competition, predation and grazing, disturbance and succession and positive interactions in structuring communities along environmental gradients. We then address alternative stable states, relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, and bottom-up and top-down control of ecosystems. We briefly consider the feedback and synergies between ecological concepts and experimental work on rocky shores, whilst still emphasizing the traditional values of marine natural history upheld in JMBA since its first publication. The importance of rigorous experimental designs championed by Underwood and co-workers is emphasized. Recent progress taking advantage of new technologies and emerging approaches is considered. We illustrate how experimental studies have shown the importance of biological interactions in modulating species and assemblage-level responses to climate change and informed conservation and management of coastal ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Latitude is known to deeply affect life with effects generalizable into ecological rules; the increasing species diversity toward tropics is the most paradigmatic. Several hypotheses tested patterns of biotic interactions' intensity along latitude. Negative interactions (i.e. competition and predation) are expected to be among the processes that produce checkerboard distribution of species. However, no relationship between checkerboardness and latitude has been uncovered. We tested Odonata assemblages worldwide for segregation patterns using a faunistic dataset (395 species arranged in 386 natural communities) spanning a wide latitudinal range (87°). We used co-occurrence analyses (C-score index and Standardized Effect Size) as an estimate of checkerboardness then correlated the occurrence of segregation to latitude. Odonata followed the Latitudinal Diversity Gradient at the regional scale (i.e. country scale) within our analyzed assemblages spanning, whereas local richness (i.e. community scale) did not follow the same pattern. Odonata assemblages structured with segregation are more common going from high to low latitudes, and local species richness have no effect on the pattern. We summarized hypotheses on how biotic interactions or ecological and historical processes can influence the spatial patterns in the checkerboards of assemblages and presented promising ways to help to gain a better mechanistic understanding of the drivers of the Latitudinal Diversity Gradient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the last decade, high‐throughput metabarcoding became routine for analyzing protistan diversity and distributions in nature. Amid a multitude of exciting findings, scientists have also identified and addressed technical and biological limitations, although problems still exist for inference of meaningful taxonomic and ecological knowledge based on short DNA sequences. Given the extensive use of this approach, it is critical to settle our understanding on its strengths and weaknesses and to synthesize up‐to‐date methodological and conceptual trends. This article summarizes key scientific and technical findings, and identifies current and future directions in protist research that uses metabarcoding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The corixid Trichocorixa verticalis originates from North America and is the only aquatic hemipteran alien to Europe. It is spreading in south-west Iberia where it is the dominant corixid in permanent, saline wetlands, where it may have excluded halotolerant native corixid species. In the Doñana wetland complex in south-west Spain, it is abundant in temporary brackish ponds but almost absent from temporary fresh ponds where the native S. lateralis is the dominant corixid. We conducted an outdoor experiment to test whether the alien is intolerant of low salinities, or if it can be competitively excluded by the native species S. lateralis. We established single species tanks for each species in semi-natural conditions, as well as mixed species tanks and controls lacking corixids. Trichocorixa verticalis was able to complete its life-cycle at a low salinity of 2 g/l. Compared to S. lateralis, it showed higher daily adult mortality and nymph production, but a shorter generation time. When mixed together, both species had lower adult mortality than in the alone treatment, suggesting they can coexist. Adult abundance at the end of the experiment was highest for T. verticalis, which performed better in mixed tanks whereas S. lateralis performed better alone. These results confirm that T. verticalis can tolerate freshwaters and suggest that its rarity in these ponds in nature is due to other ecological factors such as dispersal limitation, poor adaptation to fluctuating water levels, or the effects of ectoparasitic water mites known to prefer the alien as a host. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-intensity pulsed electromagnetic fields (HI-PEMFs) can be used for contactless permeabilization of biological cells and, thus, exploited for drug and gene delivery or other biomedical applications. Nevertheless, the availability of applicable technological setups is almost non-existent. In this article, we present a new prototype of the HI-PEMF generator, which can be used for contactless permeabilization of cells in vitro. The generator is based on high dI/dt silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) switches and is capable to generate magnetic field pulses up to 7 T and electric fields >10 V/cm in a volume comparable to standard in vitro procedures for electroporation. Three different applicators (inductors) were studied, and the influence on the output pulse is presented, including the thermal analysis. Based on the results, the optimal inductor was selected and experimentally tested on Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells in basic permeabilization [propidium iodide (PI)] experiments. The generator circuit, parameters, characteristics, and recommendations for future HI-PEMF systems are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Because genes and phenotypes are embedded within individuals, and individuals within populations, interactions within one level of biological organization are inherently linked to interactors at others. Here, we expand the network paradigm to consider that nodes can be embedded within other nodes, and connections (edges) between nodes at one level of organization form "bridges" for connections between nodes embedded within them. Such hierarchically embedded networks highlight two central properties of biological systems: 1) processes occurring across multiple levels of organization shape connections among biological units at any given level of organization and 2) ecological effects occurring at a given level of organization can propagate up or down to additional levels. Explicitly considering the embedded structure of evolutionary and ecological networks can capture otherwise hidden feedbacks and generate new insights into key biological phenomena, ultimately promoting a broader understanding of interactions in evolutionary theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Technological advances in high-throughput techniques have resulted in tremendous growth of complex biological datasets providing evidence regarding various biomolecular interactions. To cope with this data flood, computational approaches, web services, and databases have been implemented to deal with issues such as data integration, visualization, exploration, organization, scalability, and complexity. Nevertheless, as the number of such sets increases, it is becoming more and more difficult for an end user to know what the scope and focus of each repository is and how redundant the information between them is. Several repositories have a more general scope, while others focus on specialized aspects, such as specific organisms or biological systems. Unfortunately, many of these databases are self-contained or poorly documented and maintained. For a clearer view, in this article we provide a comprehensive categorization, comparison and evaluation of such repositories for different bioentity interaction types. We discuss most of the publicly available services based on their content, sources of information, data representation methods, user-friendliness, scope and interconnectivity, and we comment on their strengths and weaknesses. We aim for this review to reach a broad readership varying from biomedical beginners to experts and serve as a reference article in the field of Network Biology.

Important information on chemical processes in living systems can be obtained by the rates at which these biological interactions occur. This review will discuss several techniques based on traditional and high-performance affinity chromatography that may be used to examine the kinetics of biological reactions. These methods include band-broadening measurements, techniques for peak fitting, split-peak analysis, peak decay studies, and ultrafast affinity extraction. The general principles and theory of each method, as applied to the determination of rate constants, will be discussed. The applications of each approach, along with its advantages and limitations, will also be considered.