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The distributions of many high-elevation tree species have shifted as a result of recent climate change; however, there is substantial variability in the movement of alpine treelines at local to regional scales. In this study, we derive records of tree growth and establishment from nine alpine treeline ecotones in the Canadian Rocky Mountains, characterise the influence of seasonal climate variables on four tree species (Abies lasiocarpa, Larix lyallii, Picea engelmannii, Pinus albicaulis) and estimate the degree to which treeline movement in the twentieth century has lagged or exceeded the rate predicted by recent temperature warming. The growth and establishment records revealed a widespread increase in radial growth, establishment frequency and stand density beginning in the mid-twentieth century. Coinciding with a period of warming summer temperatures and favourable moisture availability, these changes appear to have supported upslope treeline advance at all sites (range, 0.23–2.00 m/year; mean, 0.83 + 0.67 m/year). However, relationships with seasonal climate variables varied between species, and the rates of treeline movement lagged those of temperature warming in most cases. These results indicate that future climate change impacts on treelines in the region are likely to be moderated by species composition and to occur more slowly than anticipated based on temperature warming alone.

To enhance understanding of how climate and humans influenced historical fire occurrence in the montane forests of Jasper National Park, we crossdated fire-scar and tree age samples from 172 plots. We tested effects of drought and climatic variation driven by the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Pacific North American (PNA) pattern on fire occurrence. We also tested whether local droughts were associated with ENSO, PNA, Pacific Decadal Oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation. We used a combination of instrumental and proxy-climate records to test whether climatic variation explained the absence of fire scars in our study area during the 20th century. From 1646 to 1915, 18 fires burned mainly during drier than average years. Drought years, but not fire years, were associated with positive ENSO and PNA indices, corresponding to warmer conditions with reduced snowpacks. Fire frequency varied through time, although no fire scars have formed since 1915. Potential recording trees present at all plots and climate conducive to fire over multiple years provide evidence that human influences superseded climatic variation to explain the lack of fire scars during the 20th century. Fire suppression significantly altered the fire regime after the formation of Jasper National Park, justifying the ongoing mechanical fuel treatments, prescribed and managed wildfires to improve forest resilience to climate change.

Whether the food movement is most likely to transform the food system through ‘alternative’ or ‘oppositional’ initiatives has been the focus of considerable scholarly debate. Alternative initiatives are widespread but risk reinforcing the conventional food system by supporting neoliberal discourse and governance mechanisms, including localism, consumer choice, entrepreneurialism and self-help. While oppositional initiatives such as political advocacy have the potential for system-wide change, the current neoliberal political and ideological context dominant in Canada poses difficulties for initiatives that explicitly oppose the conventional food system. As such, some argue that the food movement requires convergence between alternative and oppositional initiatives. In this paper, we investigate convergence using survey results from 143 food movement organizations in four Canadian provinces. Results based on cluster analysis and descriptive statistics on organizational discourse, activities and visions of sustainable food systems demonstrate convergence around neoliberal discourse and governance mechanisms. Localism and consumer education characteristics are particularly prominent, with a majority of respondents describing their organizations as ‘local’, engaging in consumer education activities, and stating the importance of consumer education activities, indicating convergence around alternative, rather than oppositional, initiatives. While convergence around these discourse and strategies may limit the transformative potential of the food system when interpreted as neoliberalisation of the movement, such a reading does not demonstrate their full potential, as survey results also indicate trends of transformative visions of change and political engagement, particularly at the municipal level. This research demonstrates that the movement can work simultaneously within, and opposed to, the conventional food system, and provides understanding of both neoliberal leanings and the politics of the possible of the food movement.

In heterogeneous forest landscapes prone to wildfires, accurate classification of the fire regime beyond direct observations and records is difficult. This is in part due to the methods used to reconstruct historical fires in complex, heterogeneous landscapes with varying fire severities. Mixed-severity fire regimes, defined as variations in wildfire severity over time and/or space, have important implications for ecosystem functioning and forest management. Fire event detection is used to reduce uncertainties in historical tree-ring proxy records. The number of fire events considered in fire regime classification varies based on detection criteria (filters) that are researcher-selected, such as number of trees or plots recording fire. Here we analyzed the sensitivity of fire regime classification to common detection criteria in a mixed-severity fire regime in the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains, Alberta, Canada. We found that detection criteria bias records toward high-severity events and against potentially ecologically significant low-severity fires in mixed-severity regimes, ultimately classifying them as higher severity. We conclude that detection criteria methods must address the scale that is relevant to the ecological or management questions being addressed.

Remote sensing, climate, and ground data were used within a geographic information system (GIS) to map desertification risk in the north-west of Jordan. The approach was based on modelling wind and water erosion and incorporating the results with a map representing the severity of drought. Water erosion was modelled by the universal soil loss equation, while wind erosion was modelled by a dust emission model. The extent of drought was mapped using the evapotranspiration water stress index (EWSI) which incorporated actual and potential evapotranspiration. Output maps were assessed within GIS in terms of spatial patterns and the degree of correlation with soil surficial properties. Results showed that both topography and soil explained 75% of the variation in water erosion, while soil explained 25% of the variation in wind erosion, which was mainly controlled by natural factors of topography and wind. Analysis of the EWSI map showed that drought risk was dominating most of the rainfed areas. The combined effects of soil erosion and drought were reflected on the desertification risk map. The adoption of these geospatial and remote sensing techniques is, therefore, recommended to map desertification risk in Jordan and in similar arid environments.

To investigate drought influences on mixed-severity fire regimes in montane forests of southeastern British Columbia, we developed a Douglas-fir latewood-width chronology and tested its associations with drought records across the fire season. Associations were strong between drought and latewood-widths particularly for June–August. Based on the chronology, we reconstructed the summer Drought Code, an index of moisture content in slow-drying deep compact organics in the soil and coarse woody fuels. Using the summer Drought Code and an existing reconstruction of the summer Palmer Drought Severity Index, representing moisture content in the quick-drying duff layer, we tested fire–drought associations using fire-scar records. Subtle differences in fire–drought associations reflect distinct drying rates and overwintering capacity among forest fuels represented by each summer drought reconstruction. Variable moisture conditions across fuels influence fire occurrence; in particular when the summer Drought Code exceeds 344 and the summer Palmer Drought Severity Index is below 0.08, fire occurrence is more likely. The application of these thresholds with climate change scenarios may provide insights on how mixed-severity fire regimes could be impacted in montane forests of southeastern British Columbia.

Stable isotope ratios of carbon (δ13C) and oxygen (δ18O) from tree ring cellulose can provide valuable paleoclimatic information at annual and subannual resolution, from time periods long before instrumental climate records. Recently, mummified (non-permineralized) wood was discovered within Canadian Subarctic kimberlites, inviting paleoclimatic investigations of the time in which the trees grew. In the mummified wood, polysaccharides (hemicellulose, α-cellulose) are frequently preferentially degraded, in the low-silica anaerobic burial environment of the kimberlites, resulting in a lignin-rich material. However, some samples from the Ekati Panda kimberlite pipe (ca. 53.3 Ma) contain remnant cellulose, demonstrating the extraordinary preservation potential of kimberlites. Preservation of α-cellulose is important because it allows for the construction of stable isotopic proxy records of deep-time paleoclimates at annual to subannual resolution. Established α-cellulose extraction methods [i.e., using a 17.5% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution] were unsuitable for this material because all holocelluloses were dissolved. Therefore, we tested variants of two cellulose extraction methods [i.e., Brendel et al. (2000) and Jayme-Wise (Leavitt and Danzer 1993, Loader et al. 1997)] to optimize a procedure for extraction of a consistent yield of mummified wood cellulose for stable isotopic analysis. Stable carbon (δ13C) and oxygen (δ18O) isotopes were measured from cellulose from each extraction method, as well as Extractive-Free Wood and unextracted mummified wood. vitrinite reflectance, used to assess thermal alteration of the unextracted material to estimate post-burial temperatures within the kimberlite, suggested low post-burial peak temperatures (Tpeak = 60 °C). We detected no mineral contaminants (i.e., iron oxides) in the material using Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX). Despite low cellulose yield (

Mixed-severity fire regimes are important drivers of forest dynamics, stand structural attributes, and regional and local landscape heterogeneity, but they remain poorly understood. We reconstructed site-level fire histories using fire scars and even-aged cohorts at 20 sites in two contiguous watersheds in southeastern British Columbia, Canada, a region that is particularly understudied. We compared stand composition and structural attributes (i.e., snag and veteran tree densities, tree size variability, and maximum tree size) at sites found to be mixed-severity, as well as those found to be high-severity after recent ( Eleven of 20 sites displayed mixed-severity fire histories and were located at elevations 600 m higher than previously described for this landscape. Tree species composition varied with disturbance history. Mixed-severity sites were dominated by Douglas-fir and western larch that regenerated after frequent low- to moderate-intensity fires, which created fire scars. Periodic moderate-severity fires generated some even-aged cohorts with surviving veteran trees. At higher-elevations, intense fires generated cohorts dominated by lodgepole pine. Subalpine fir dominated high-severity sites that last burned >250 years ago. Age structures at mixed- and older high-severity sites were of similar complexity, but could be differentiated using our index of age structure continuity. We found western larch to be a strong indicator of historical mixed-severity fire regimes. Western larch trees and stumps were only found at mixed-severity sites, and 84% of these individuals established within 15 years of antecedent fire scars. Snag densities were greatest at high-severity sites that burned >150 years ago, in contrast to expectations that mixed-severity sites would be more structurally complex. Tree size attributes were indistinguishable between mixed- and high-severity sites, although, subcanopy densities were particularly high (upwards of 5600 ha−1) having persisted since the last fire at most sites. Selective harvesting and fire suppression during the 20th century have homogenized contemporary forest structures in mid-elevation forests. An improved understanding of mixed-severity fire regimes is vital to determining whether forest resilience is compromised and where ecological restoration is warranted.

Treeline advance has occurred throughout the twentieth century in mountainous regions around the world; however, local variation and temporal lags in responses to climate warming indicate that the upper limits of some treelines are not necessarily in climatic equilibrium. These observations suggest that factors other than climate are constraining tree establishment beyond existing treelines. Using a seed addition experiment, we tested the effects of seed availability, predation and microsite limitation on the establishment of two subalpine tree species (Picea engelmannii and Abies lasiocarpa) across four treelines in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. The effect of vegetation removal on seedling growth was also determined, and microclimate conditions were monitored. Establishment limitations observed in the field were placed in context with the effects of soil properties observed in a parallel experiment. The seed addition experiment revealed reduced establishment with increasing elevation, suggesting that although establishment within the treeline ecotone is at least partially seed limited, other constraints are more important beyond the current treeline. The effects of herbivory and microsite availability significantly reduced seedling establishment but were less influential beyond the treeline. Microclimate monitoring revealed that establishment was negatively related to growing season temperatures and positively related to the duration of winter snow cover, counter to the conventional expectation that establishment is limited by low temperatures. Overall, it appears that seedling establishment beyond treeline is predominantly constrained by a combination of high soil surface temperatures during the growing season, reduced winter snowpack and unfavourable soil properties. Our study supports the assertion that seedling establishment in alpine treeline ecotones is simultaneously limited by various climatic and nonclimatic drivers. Together, these factors may limit future treeline advance in the Canadian Rocky Mountains and should be considered when assessing the potential for treeline advance in alpine systems elsewhere.

Due to a suite of environmental changes, Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana Dougl. ex Hook, called Gary oak in Canada) associated ecosystems at many North American sites are being encroached upon by Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco var. menziesii) and other conifer species. Alteration of stand structure and composition is causing substantial changes in the dynamics of these ecosystems, creating an environment in which Oregon white oak is not thriving. In this study we used dendrochronology to investigate the competitive dynamics between Oregon white oak and Douglas-fir in a mixed forest stand on Southern Vancouver Island. Significant species-specific differences in radial growth sensitivity to drought were found between Oregon white oak and Douglas-fir. Oregon white oak trees growing at high densities, or competing with Douglas-fir for moisture were found to be more sensitive to drought and more sensitive to growing conditions during the prior year. The response of Douglas-fir to drought was less variable, possibly due to the relatively low conifer densities at our study site, as well as the species&rsquo, ability to root graft, its higher shade tolerance than Oregon white oak, and its rapid growth rates that allow it to achieve a more dominant canopy position. The non-stationary response to climate exhibited by Oregon white oak provides insights into the mechanisms by which Oregon white oak savannas are being converted to coniferous woodland, but also suggest that tree-ring reconstructions of climate need to explicitly address changes in stand dynamics that could influence the growth&ndash, climate relationship

Patterns of correlation between tree rings and local temperature or precipitation are investigated using 762 International Tree-Ring Data Bank standardized ring width site chronology time series, and a gridded dataset of temperature and precipitation. Coherent regional- and, in some cases, hemispheric-scale patterns of correlation are found in the extratropical Northern Hemisphere for both the summer prior to and the summer concurrent with ring width formation across different species and over large distances. Among those chronologies that are primarily linked to temperature, thicker ring widths are generally associated with anomalously cool prior summer temperature and anomalously warm concurrent summer temperature. Reconstructions of local summer temperature using prior, concurrent, and/or subsequent year ring widths as predictors demonstrate that useful climate–growth information generally exists in ring widths that are both concurrent with and subsequent to the summer temperature anomaly. Consistent prior summer temperature–ring width relationships have received relatively little previous attention. Among those chronologies that are primarily linked to precipitation, thicker ring widths are generally associated with high summer precipitation in both the year prior to and the year concurrent with ring formation. The magnitude and spatial consistency of temperature correlations are greater than those for precipitation, at least on the hemispheric scale. These results support and serve to generalize the conclusions of prior regionally restricted and/or species-specific studies relating ring width to energy and/or water limitations. Regional- and hemispheric-scale patterns of ring width–temperature or ring width–precipitation correlations show up more clearly in species-specific and frequency-dependent analyses. Different species respond differently to temperature and precipitation anomalies. Consistent with the hemispheric patterns described above, most standardized ring width time series more faithfully record the high frequency component of the temperature signal than the low frequency component. The potential for enhanced coherence in regionally restricted, species-specific, and frequency-dependent analyses is independently verified by examining the correlation between ring width time series over geographical distance. This broader characterization of relationships between tree-ring widths and local climate provides an objective basis for selecting tree ring or other similarly high-resolution proxy data for regional-, hemispheric-, or global-scale paleoclimate reconstructions.

We reconstructed a 10,500-yr fire and vegetation history of a montane site in the North Cascade Range, Washington State based on lake sediment charcoal, macrofossil and pollen records. High-resolution sampling and abundant macrofossils made it possible to analyze relationships between fire and vegetation. During the early Holocene (> 10,500 to ca. 8000 cal yr BP) forests were subalpine woodlands dominated by Pinus contorta. Around 8000 cal yr BP, P. contorta sharply declined in the macrofossil record. Shade tolerant, mesic species first appeared ca. 4500 cal yr BP. Cupressus nootkatensis appeared most recently at 2000 cal yr BP. Fire frequency varies throughout the record, with significantly shorter mean fire return intervals in the early Holocene than the mid and late Holocene. Charcoal peaks are significantly correlated with an initial increase in macrofossil accumulation rates followed by a decrease, likely corresponding to tree mortality following fire. Climate appears to be a key driver in vegetation and fire regimes over millennial time scales. Fire and other disturbances altered forest vegetation at shorter time scales, and vegetation may have mediated local fire regimes. For example, dominance of P. contorta in the early Holocene forests may have been reinforced by its susceptibility to frequent, stand-replacing fire events.

Wildland fire is an important disturbance agent in forests of the American Northwest. Historical fire suppression efforts have contributed to an accumulation of fuels in many Northwestern forests and may result in more frequent and/or more severe wildfire events. Here we investigate the extent to which atmospheric and climatic variability may contribute to variability in annual area burned on 20 National Forests in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. Empirical orthogonal function (EOF) analysis was used to identify coherent patterns in area burned by wildfire in the Pacific Northwest. Anomaly fields of 500-hPa height were regressed onto the resulting principal-component time series to identify the patterns in atmospheric circulation that are associated with variability in area burned by wildfire. Additionally, cross-correlation functions were calculated for the Palmer drought severity index (PDSI) over the year preceding the wildfire season. Parallel analyses based on superposed epoch analysis focused only on the extreme fire years (both large and small) to discriminate the controls on extreme years from the linear responses identified in the regression analyses. Four distinct patterns in area burned were identified, each associated with distinct climatic processes. Extreme wildfire years are forced at least in part by an- tecedent drought and summertime blocking in the 500-hPa height field. However the re- sponse to these forcings is modulated by the ecology of the dominant forest. In more mesic forest types antecedent drought is a necessary precondition for forests to burn, but it is not a good predictor of area burned due to the rarity of subsequent ignition. At especially dry locations, summertime blocking events can lead to increases in area burned even in the absence of antecedent drought. At particularly xeric locations summertime cyclones can also lead to increased area burned, probably due to dry lightning storms that bring ignition and strong winds but little precipitation. These results suggest that fuels treatments alone may not be effective at reducing area burned under extreme climatic conditions and fur- thermore that anthropogenic climate change may have important implications for forest

A network of 32 drought sensitive tree-ring chronologies is used to reconstruct mean water year flow on the Columbia River at The Dalles, Oregon, since 1750. The reconstruction explains 30 percent of the variability in mean water year (October to September) flow, with a large portion of unexplained variance caused by underestimates of the most severe low flow events. Residual statistics from the tree-ring reconstruction, as well as an identically specified instrumental reconstruction, exhibit positive trends over time. This finding suggests that the relationship between drought and streamflow has changed over time, supporting results from hydrologic models, which suggest that changes in land cover over the 20th Century have had measurable impacts on runoff production. Low pass filtering the flow record suggests that persistent low flows during the 1840s were probably the most severe of the past 250 years, but that flows during the 1930s were nearly as extreme. The period from 1950 to 1987 is anomalous in the context of this record for having no notable multiyear drought events. A comparison of the flow reconstruction to paleorecords of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) and El Nifio/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) support a strong 20th Century link between large scale circulation and streamflow, but suggests that this link is very weak prior to 1900.

Climatic variability is a dominant factor affecting large wildfires in the western United States, an observation supported by palaeoecological data on charcoal in lake sediments and reconstructions from fire-scarred trees. Although current fire management focuses on fuel reductions to bring fuel loadings back to their historical ranges, at the regional scale extreme fire weather is still the dominant influence on area burned and fire severity. Current forecasting tools are limited to short-term predictions of fire weather, but increased understanding of large-scale oceanic and atmospheric patterns in the Pacific Ocean (e.g., El NiSouthern Oscillation, Pacific Decadal Oscillation) may improve our ability to predict climatic variability at seasonal to annual leads. Associations between these quasi-periodic patterns and fire occurrence, though evident in some regions, have been difficult to establish in others. Increased temperature in the future will likely extend fire seasons throughout the western United States, with more fires occurring earlier and later than is currently typical, and will increase the total area burned in some regions. If climatic change increases the amplitude and duration of extreme fire weather, we can expect significant changes in the distribution and abundance of dominant plant species in some ecosystems, which would thus affect habitat of some sensitive plant and animal species. Some species that are sensitive to fire may decline, whereas the distribution and abundance of species favored by fire may be enhanced. The effects of climatic change will partially depend on the extent to which resource management modifies vegetation structure and fuels.

A transect of climate sensitive tree ring-width chronologies from coastal western North America provides a useful proxy index of North Pacic ocean-atmosphere variability since 1600 AD. Here we use this high-resolution record to identify intervals of an enhanced interdecadal cli- mate signal in the North Pacic, and to assess the timing and magnitude of abrupt shifts in this system. In the con- textofthisrecord,thestep-likeclimateshiftthatoccurredin 1976-1977 is not a unique event, with similar events having occurredfrequentlyduringthepast400years. Furthermore, most of the pre-instrumental portion of this record is char- acterized by pronounced interdecadal variability, while the secularportionismorestronglyinterannualinnature. Ifthe 1976-1977 event marks a return to this mode of variability there may be signicant consequences for natural resources management in the North Pacic Sector.

In this paper we review the ecology and physiology of mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana (Bong.) Carrière) in the context of a dendroclimatological analysis. To better understand the relationship between mountain hemlock growth and climate variability throughout its range we have analyzed chronologies from 10 coastal sites, located along a transect extending from northern California to southern Alaska. The chronologies exhibit significant large-scale cross-correlations, with two distinct growth regions implied: chronologies from the northern Cascades in California, to the Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, are correlated with each other but are distinct from Alaskan chronologies. While intervals of coherent reduced growth along the entire transect occur episodically throughout the record, intervals of coherent enhanced growth are less common. Response function analyses indicate that summer temperature is the most influential factor limiting growth throughout the study region, while winter precipitation is an additional limiting factor south of Alaska. Warm summer temperatures are associated with enhanced growth in the current year but with reduced growth in the following year. This response is believed to be a reflection of the energy required to mature cones initiated in the preceding year. The association with winter precipitation may reflect the role of deep, persistent snowpacks in regulating the duration of the growing season.

[1] Annual growth increments from trees and coral heads provide an opportunity to develop proxy records of North Pacific climatic variability that extend back in time well beyond the earliest instrumental records, and in regions where records have not been kept. Here we combine five published proxy records of North Pacific climatic variability in order to identify the extent to which these records provide a coherent picture of Pacific Basin climatic variability. This composite chronology is well correlated with the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) index, and provides a better record of PDO variability than any of the constituent chronologies back to 1840. A comparison of these records suggests that the PDO may not have been an important organizing structure in the North Pacific climate system over much of the 19th century, possibly indicating changes in the spatial pattern of sea-level pressure and consequent surface climate patterns of variability over the Americas.