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Summary Synthesis of carboxymethyl starch (CMSS) from sago (Metroxylon sagu), an important agricultural commodity of Malaysia, was conducted in 30 L reactor vessel using isopropanol as the non-aqueous medium. CMSS of degree of substitution (DS) 0.24, 0.40, 0.54 and 0.80 was prepared by varying the molar ratio of sodium hydroxide and sodium monochloroacetate to anhydroglucose units including reaction time. Substitution of the hydroxyl groups on the native starch with carboxymethyl group was confirmed using Fourier transform infrared. All prepared samples were water-soluble at room temperature, producing high paste clarity. Carboxymethylation markedly reduced viscosity of CMSS compared to native sago. The particle size distribution also displayed increase in the granule size range compared to native sago. However X-ray diffractometry of CMSS revealed loss of crystallinity. Scanning electron microscopy showed that the granular smooth appearance of native starch was mostly distorted after carboxymethylation process at higher DS values. The synthesis of carboxymethyl sago starch with different degrees of substitution will add value to the sago industry as new functional biomaterial with potential application in the food and non-food industry.

Sago (Metroxylon sagu) starch was exposed to gamma-irradiation in air at doses 6, 10 and 25 kGy. Subsequent changes in the physicochemical and thermal properties were measured. The apparent amylose content and swelling power of irradiated sago starch was significantly reduced while reducing sugars and starch solubility were significantly increased due to degradation. X-ray diffraction studies showed that radiation did not affect the crystalline type but induced a decrease in the degree of crystallinity, indicating the destruction of the ordered distribution of neighboring polysaccharide chains in the starch granules, in particular of the amylopectin component, which is responsible for starch crystallinity. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) of irradiated sago starch showed a small but significant increase in the onset and peak transition temperatures at 10 and 25 kGy dose; the conclusion temperature and gelatinization enthalpy was not affected. SEM and particle size analysis produced no evidence of physical damage to sago starch up to 25 kGy dose radiation treatment since the granular appearance and size distribution was retained.

Effects of food irradiation on allergen and nutritional composition of giant freshwater prawn are not well documented. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the effects of gamma irradiation on tropomyosin allergen, proximate composition, and mineral elements in Macrobrachium rosenbergii. In this study, prawn was peeled, cut into small pieces, vacuum packaged and gamma irradiated at 0, 5, 7, 10 and 15 kGy with a dose rate of 0.5 kGy/h using cobalt-60 as the source, subsequently determined the level of tropomyosin, proximate composition and mineral elements respectively. The results showed that band density of tropomyosin irradiated at 10 and 15 kGy is markedly decreased. Proximate analysis revealed that moisture, protein, and carbohydrate content were significantly different as compared with non-irradiated prawn. Meanwhile, gamma irradiated M. rosenbergii at 15 kGy was observed to be significantly higher in nickel and zinc than the non-irradiated prawn. The findings provide a new information that food irradiation may affect the tropomyosin allergen, proximate composition and mineral elements of the prawn.

Corn starches with different amylose-to-amylopectin ratio (waxy, normal, Hylon V, and Hylon VII) were treated with five doses of gamma irradiation (1, 5, 10, 25, and 50 kGy). The effects of gamma irradiation on the physicochemical properties of starch samples were investigated. Waxy samples showed an increase of amylose-like fractions when irradiated at 10 kGy. The reduction in apparent amylose content increased with amylose content when underwent irradiation at 25 and 50 kGy. Low amylose starches lost their pasting ability when irradiated at 25 and 50 kGy. Results from thermal behavior and pasting profile suggested that low level of cross-linking occurred in Hylon VII samples irradiated at 5 kGy. Severe reduction in pasting properties, gelatinization temperatures and relative crystallinity with increasing irradiation intensity revealed that waxy samples were affected more by gamma irradiation; this also indicated amylopectin was the starch fraction most affected by gamma irradiation. Alteration level was portrayed differently when different kind of physicochemical properties were investigated, in which the pasting properties and crystallinity of starches were more immensely influenced by gamma irradiation while thermal behavior was less affected. Despite the irradiation level, the morphology and crystal pattern of starch granules were found remain unchanged by irradiation.

The effect of gamma-irradiation on formation of resistant starch (RS) in corn starch with different amylose content was examined. Normal corn starch, waxy corn starch, and high amylose corn starch (Hylon V and Hylon VII) were irradiated at 5, 10, 25 and 50 kGy. Gamma-irradiation at 5 kGy increased the amylose-like molecules in starches and thus significantly enhanced the RS content (p0.05). Highest RS content was produced by 50 kGy irradiated in all the starch samples (p0.05). The irradiation-induced RS was more evident in waxy corn starch, followed by high amylose corn starch and normal corn starch.

The effects of irradiation on microbiological load and chemical components of empty fruit bunch (EFB) and palm press jibre (PPF) were investigated as the preliminary study for upgrading of oil palm wastes to animal feeds by fermentation. The initial contamination of microorganisms in both EFB and PPF was very high and there is no significant difference between the samples collected from various palm oil mills. The dose required to eliminate below the detectable level was more than 15 kGy for total aerobic bacteria, but 54 kGy is enough for fungi. The contents of holocellulose and lignin were c 60 % and 25 %, respectively, in both EFB and PPF, and the change in components by irradiation was small. EFB and PPF have a high water holding capacity suggesting that they are suitable substrates for fermentation. These results show that the irradiation by 5-10 kGy on EFB and PPF is applicable for the pasteurisation of fermentation media without any signijicant change in components.